Abstract
This study investigates the performance of 22 monolingual and 54 bilingual children with and without specific language impairment (SLI), in a nonword repetition (NWRT) and a sentence repetition task (SRT). Both tasks were constructed according to the principles for LITMUS tools (Language Impairment Testing in Multilingual Settings) developed within COST Action IS0804, and incorporated phonological or syntactic structures that are linguistically complex and have been shown to be difficult for children with SLI across languages. For phonology these are in particular (non)words containing consonant clusters. In morphosyntax complexity has been attributed to factors such as embedding and/or syntactic movement. Tasks focusing on such structures are expected to identify SLI in bilinguals across language combinations. This is notoriously difficult because structures that are problematic for typically developing bilinguals (BiTDs) and monolingual children with SLI (MoSLI) often overlap. We show that the NWRT and the SRT are reliable tools for identification of SLI in bilingual contexts. However, interpretation of the performance of bilingual children depends on background information as provided by parental questionnaires. In order to evaluate the accuracy of our tasks we recruited children in ordinary kindergartens or schools and in Speech Language Therapy centers and verified their status with a battery of standardized language tests, assessing bilingual children in both their languages. We consider a bilingual child language impaired if she shows impairments in two language domains in both her languages. For assessment we used tests normed for monolinguals (with one exception) and adjusted the norms for bilingualism and for language dominance. This procedure established the following groups: 10 typical monolinguals (MoTD), 12 MoSLI, 46 BiTD and 8 bilingual children with SLI (BiSLI). Our results show that both tasks target relevant structures: monolingual children are classified with 100% accuracy. Crucially, both our tasks distinguish BiTDs from MoSLIs and BiTDs from BiSLIs. The NWRT shows high accuracy and only minimal influence of language dominance. The SRT can be scored as “identical repetition” or as “target structure”, the latter aiming for scoring the mastery of a syntactic structure, ignoring lexical and specific case or gender errors. Focusing on the latter measure, we
Highlights
Bilingual Language Development and Language ImpairmentRecent linguistic research on language impairment (SLI) has focused on bilingual populations because more and more children grow up bilingually and the challenges of identifying what is typical in bilingual language development and what should be considered an impairment are notorious, see ArmonLotem et al (2015) and Marinis et al (2017) for recent overviews
Our investigation of the German LITMUS NWRT and SRT has shown that both are well suited as tools for the identification of SLI in bilinguals
Since the construction of both tasks was guided by linguistic notions such as phonological or syntactic complexity and neither task primarily measures WM, this is a result relevant on the theoretical and the practical level
Summary
Bilingual Language Development and Language ImpairmentRecent linguistic research on (specific) language impairment (SLI) has focused on bilingual populations because more and more children grow up bilingually and the challenges of identifying what is typical in bilingual language development and what should be considered an impairment are notorious, see ArmonLotem et al (2015) and Marinis et al (2017) for recent overviews. The bigger challenge is, that there is an overlap in the linguistic structures that are difficult to master for bilingual children with those structures that are considered clinical markers for SLI in a particular target language; Håkansson and Nettelbladt (1996) were the first to point this out for Swedish, Paradis (2010), Hamann (2012), and Grimm and Schulz (2014) give more recent overviews of similarities and differences. This overlap in error patterns leads to over- and underdiagnosis, see Genesee et al (2004). Heritage situations add further complications: L1 tests, if available, might not be appropriate because the immigrant language might have changed due to contact phenomena as in the case of Immigrant Turkish in Germany (Schroeder and Dollnick, 2013), or, independent of the L1, early acquisition of an L2 might lead to attrition phenomena (Köpke et al, 2004; Montrul, 2008)
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