Abstract
About 3.0 million people living under a typical tropical savannah climate in the Brazilian Federal District (FD) have faced an unprecedented water crisis. Considering the need for indirect reuse of wastewater for public supply, this work aimed to investigate FD water sources regarding the presence and risks of three contaminants of emerging concern: caffeine, carbamazepine, and atrazine. Samples from two current water sources (Descoberto and Santa-Maria Lakes) and two future water sources of the FD (Paranoá and Corumbá Lakes) were analyzed by solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS). Method precision and accuracy were satisfactory and limits of quantification ranged from 0.37 to 0.54 ng/L. Higher concentrations were observed for caffeine in the future water sources (39 to 180 ng/L) followed by carbamazepine (5.4 to 25 ng/L) and atrazine (3.9 to 15 ng/L). The less-impacted water sources, in current use in the FD, present caffeine concentrations ranging from 4.8 to 32 ng/L and atrazine levels varying between 2.4 and 5.5 ng/L. Carbamazepine was not detected in these reservoirs. Environmental risk assessment indicates a possible risk for carbamazepine and atrazine, evidencing the need for further studies. No human health risk was depicted within the results.
Highlights
The capital of Brazil, Brasılia, is located in the Brazilian Federal District (FD) under a typical tropical savannah climate with distinct periods of precipitation and humidity
The former is located beyond the borders of the FD and receives effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), either directly or through its tributaries, while Paranoa Lake is an urban water system that receives effluents from two important WWTPs of the FD, as well as urban drainage waters and contaminated waters from tributaries, some of them running through densely populated areas
A method based on the solid-phase extraction followed by quantification using liquid chromatography coupled to highresolution hybrid mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) was developed and applied for the quantification of caffeine, carbamazepine, and atrazine in water sources of the Brazilian Federal District
Summary
The capital of Brazil, Brasılia, is located in the Brazilian Federal District (FD) under a typical tropical savannah climate with distinct periods of precipitation and humidity. As a result of low rainfall rates for three consecutive years, combined with a lower water recharge and an intense water use, the region is experiencing the largest water crisis in its history. To alleviate this problem, several long-term alternatives were evaluated, two of which were selected for the expansion of the water supply system: the use of Corumbaand Paranoa Lakes as water sources. The former is located beyond the borders of the FD and receives effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), either directly or through its tributaries, while Paranoa Lake is an urban water system that receives effluents from two important WWTPs of the FD, as well as urban drainage waters and contaminated waters from tributaries, some of them running through densely populated areas
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