Mercury in Children: Current State on Exposure through Human Biomonitoring Studies.

Flavia Ruggieri,Francesco Domanico,Costanza Majorani,Alessandro Alimonti

doi:10.3390/ijerph14050519

Flavia Ruggieri, Francesco Domanico + Show 2 more

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https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050519

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Abstract

Mercury (Hg) in children has multiple exposure sources and the toxicity of Hg compounds depends on exposure routes, dose, timing of exposure, and developmental stage (be it prenatal or postnatal). Over the last decades, Hg was widely recognized as a threat to the children’s health and there have been acknowledgements at the international level of the need of a global policy intervention—like the Minamata treaty—aimed at reducing or preventing Hg exposure and protecting the child health. National human biomonitoring (HBM) data has demonstrated that low levels of exposure of Hg are still an important health concern for children, which no one country can solve alone. Although independent HBM surveys have provided the basis for the achievements of exposure mitigation in specific contexts, a new paradigm for a coordinated global monitoring of children’s exposure, aimed at a reliable decision-making tool at global level is yet a great challenge for the next future. The objective of the present review is to describe current HBM studies on Hg exposure in children, taking into account the potential pathways of Hg exposure and the actual Hg exposure levels assessed by different biomarkers.

Highlights

IntroductionChildren are considered especially vulnerable to environmental threats since when exposed to stressors they respond differently than adults [1], mostly due to their immature immune defenses
Children are considered especially vulnerable to environmental threats since when exposed to stressors they respond differently than adults [1], mostly due to their immature immune defenses.In addition, the active time spent outdoor and specific behaviors, increase the exposure risk in children
Results from the Faroe Islands provided the basis for the National Research Council (NRC) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for defining a Reference Dose (RfD) for

Summary

Introduction

Children are considered especially vulnerable to environmental threats since when exposed to stressors they respond differently than adults [1], mostly due to their immature immune defenses. The active time spent outdoor and specific behaviors (such as frequent hand-to-mouth activity and play on and crawl across the floor), increase the exposure risk in children. The specific and continuous growth originates a unique susceptibility of children observed through critical time-windows not seen in adults. Mercury is ubiquitous in the global environment and occurs both from anthropogenic and natural sources. It is ranked third of the most toxic elements to human health by the United

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