Abstract
The present research examines men’s self-conscious discomfort while imagining performing counter-stereotypical (traditionally feminine) behaviors as compared to stereotypical (traditionally masculine) behaviors, as a function of traditional masculinity endorsement and perceived social changes in men’s gender norms (men’s feminization) in two distinct cultural populations (U.S. Americans and Kosovan Albanians). Experiment 1 (n = 192, U.S.) confirmed prior findings by showing that men, as compared to women, experienced more self-conscious discomfort when imagining performing counter-stereotypical (vs. stereotypical) behaviors. Experiments 2 (n = 292, U.S.) and 3 (n = 191, Kosovo) focused solely on heterosexual men and experimentally manipulated perceived social changes in men’s gender norms. Results showed that the men’s feminization condition, as compared to a control or masculinity conditions, decreased self-conscious discomfort when imagining performing feminine behaviors among men who endorsed a lower versus higher level of traditional masculinity. Experiment 3 further indicated that this effect was driven by lowered expectations of being misclassified as gay. We discuss the relevance of these findings for both the gender and sexual prejudice literature.
Highlights
The present research examines men’s self-conscious discomfort while imagining performing counter-stereotypical behaviors as compared to stereotypical behaviors, as a function of traditional masculinity endorsement and perceived social changes in men’s gender norms in two distinct cultural populations (U.S Americans and Kosovan Albanians)
We investigate the potential consequences of these perceived social changes in the antifemininity norm of masculinity on heterosexual men’s self-conscious discomfort when imagining performing counter-stereotypical behaviors
The present research showed for the first time known that endorsement of traditional masculinity and perceived men’s feminization combined to influence men’s self-conscious discomfort when imagining performing counter-stereotypical, as compared to stereotypical, behaviors
Summary
The present research examines men’s self-conscious discomfort while imagining performing counter-stereotypical (traditionally feminine) behaviors as compared to stereotypical (traditionally masculine) behaviors, as a function of traditional masculinity endorsement and perceived social changes in men’s gender norms (men’s feminization) in two distinct cultural populations (U.S Americans and Kosovan Albanians). The anti-femininity mandate implies that masculinity is predominantly established and maintained in contrast to femininity (Herek 1986; Thompson et al 1985) To demonstrate their masculinity, men need to resist traditional and stereotypical feminine characteristics, roles, and behaviors (Bem 1974; Bosson and Michniewicz 2013; Kilianski 2003; Spence and Helmreich 1979). From an actor’s point of view, research indicates that due to the anti-femininity mandate, men are extremely motivated or pressured to embrace traditional masculinity norms and avoid counter-stereotypical behaviors. Men (vs. women) tend to be more concerned with threats to gender status, more reluctant to deviate from ingroup gender norms, and more driven to restore their threatened status (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al 2016)
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