Abstract
Menopause is clinically diagnosed as a condition when a woman has not menstruated for one year. During the menopausal transition period, there is an emergence of various lipid metabolic disorders due to hormonal changes, such as decreased levels of estrogens and increased levels of circulating androgens; these may lead to the development of metabolic syndromes including cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism affects the body fat mass, fat-free mass, fatty acid metabolism, and various aspects of energy metabolism, such as basal metabolic ratio, adiposity, and obesity. Moreover, menopause is also associated with alterations in the levels of various lipids circulating in the blood, such as lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and triacylglycerol (TG). Alterations in lipid metabolism and excessive adipose tissue play a key role in the synthesis of excess fatty acids, adipocytokines, proinflammatory cytokines, and reactive oxygen species, which cause lipid peroxidation and result in the development of insulin resistance, abdominal adiposity, and dyslipidemia. This review discusses dietary recommendations and beneficial compounds, such as vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, phytochemicals—and their food sources—to aid the management of abnormal lipid metabolism in postmenopausal women.
Highlights
The expression of transcripts encoding adiponectin, PPAR-γ, and fatty acid transporter in the gluteal fat of estrogen-depleted postmenopausal women was significantly higher than in the gluteal fat of premenopausal women. These findings indicate that gluteal fat may be insulin-resistant and might contribute to the accumulation of body fat after menopause, which may be related to the development of metabolic syndrome [30,31]
The causality between the incidence of sarcopenia and menopausal status is still controversial [44], it is generally accepted that natural age-related menopause is associated with an accelerated loss of Fat-Free Mass (FFM) or skeletal muscle, which is associated with decreased energy expenditure during rest and physical activity [45]
Menopause may lead to various changes in lipid metabolism due to reduced estrogen secretion
Summary
Menopause is diagnosed when a woman has not menstruated for one year due to the loss of ovarian follicular activity, which typically occurs at around 45–55 years of age [1]. In the USA, spontaneous menopause occurs at 51 years of age, on an average. The median age of women has been increasing gradually and is expected to reach 82 years by 2025 in developed countries. Menopause occurs over several years and not at a single point in time. It is preceded by a stage where women experience irregular menstrual cycle, referred to as menopausal transition (perimenopause), which involves coping with the cessation of oocyte production in the ovaries [3]. A primary female sex hormone, dictates the secondary sex characteristics and affects the development and functioning of the female reproductive system. Throughout the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the thecal cells produce androstenedione, which functions as a metabolic precursor to estrone and testosterone in the ovaries and peripheral tissues [5]
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a call
