Mechanistic aspects regarding the direct aqueous environmental photochemistry of phenol and its simple halogenated derivatives. A review

Abstract

We have reviewed the mechanistic aspects regarding the direct aqueous phase environmental photochemistry of phenol and its simple halogenated derivatives. These compounds are important industrial and natural products, are ubiquitous in aquatic systems, and their acute and chronic toxicity makes their environmental fate of interest. Work over the past two decades has unified the photochemistry of phenol and its simple halogenated derivatives. In general, three photochemical pathways dominate in aqueous solution depending on the nature of the substrate: (1) photoionization, (2) photochemical aryl-halogen bond homolysis, and (3) photochemical aryl-halogen bond heterolysis. Photoionization typically results in an array of biaryl radical coupling products which are only relevant for highly concentrated waste streams. Photolytic aryl-halogen bond homolysis will primarily give photoreduction products where reducing agents such as dissolved organic matter or reduced metal cations are present, and radical coupling products in highly concentrated waste streams. The 2- and 4-substituted halophenols may undergo photochemical aryl-halogen bond heterolysis upon irradiation to give an aryl cation. The aryl cation can be attacked by water to give the corresponding hydroxylated derivative, or may deprotonate to generate α- and γ-ketocarbenes, respectively. Following their formation, the singlet α-ketocarbenes may undergo Wolff rearrangements to cyclopentadiene-ketenes that are subsequently hydrolyzed to cyclopentadiene carboxylic acids. The triplet α- and γ-ketocarbenes are attacked by oxygen and hydrolyzed to give benzoquinones, directly hydrolyzed to yield hydroquinones, reduced to give phenols, or could take part in coupling reactions in highly concentrated waste streams to give dimers and hydroxybiaryl complexes. Additional studies in natural water samples are required to assess the relative importance of these direct irradiation mechanisms relative to indirect photolysis and other abiotic and biotic degradation and environmental partitioning pathways across the continuum of marine, freshwater, and wastewater biogeochemical signatures.