Abstract
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a promising technique for non-invasively assessing cortical brain activity during learning. This technique is safe, portable, and, compared to other imaging techniques, relatively robust to head motion, ocular and muscular artifacts and environmental noise. Moreover, the spatial resolution of fNIRS is superior to electroencephalography (EEG), a more commonly applied technique for measuring brain activity non-invasively during learning. Outcomes from fNIRS measures during learning might therefore be both sensitive to learning and to feedback on learning, in a different way than EEG. However, few studies have examined fNIRS outcomes in learning and no study to date additionally examined the effects of feedback. To address this apparent gap in the literature, the current study examined prefrontal cortex activity measured through fNIRS during visuomotor learning and how this measure is affected by task feedback. Activity in the prefrontal cortex decreased over the course of learning while being unaffected by task feedback. The findings demonstrate that fNIRS in the prefrontal cortex is valuable for assessing visuomotor learning and that this measure is robust to task feedback. The current study highlights the potential of fNIRS in assessing learning even under different task feedback conditions.
Highlights
Learning processes are most commonly examined using behavioral measures (Luu et al 2009; Webb et al 1966)
To assess the effect of feedback on learning we examined the interaction with task part instead of task block as type of feedback was manipulated for task parts
One participant achieved a declarative knowledge score of 43.75% in the first part of the task and the other achieved a declarative knowledge score of 68.75% in the second part of the task. These participants were excluded from further analyses, following the exclusion criteria used by Curran and Keele (1993), Moisello et al (2009), Tinga et al (2020a, b) and Willingham et al (1989)
Summary
Learning processes are most commonly examined using behavioral measures (Luu et al 2009; Webb et al 1966). Effects of learning on changes in cortical brain activity have been reported most frequently at parietal and frontal sites (Tinga et al 2019). During visuomotor sequence learning the correct order of movements needs to be acquired and executed while simultaneously optimizing sensorimotor parameters such as the trajectory, timing and velocity of the movement (Penhune and Steele 2012). This type of learning plays an essential role as we acquire motor skills in our daily life (Moisello et al 2009).
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