Abstract
THE UNEXPLAINED variance in learning outcomes, which lingers after the effects of ability, prior learning, teaching method, and other task-related variables have been removed, has intrigued researchers for a long time and continues to stimulate interest. The search for the source of this variance has produced many studies relating differences in meaningful learning to an assortment of motivational, interpersonal, and social variables. The results of these investigations, both past and present, have given qualified support to several widely held beliefs concerning conditions that impair or enhance learning. These beliefs, which serve as the source of many research hypotheses, can be summarized by two interrelated propositions:
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