Martyr or saint? Body, image and acting style in Dreyer’s La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc and Bresson’s Procès de Jeanne d’Arc

REVIEWS83 The New Historians ofthe Twelfth-Century Renaissance (Woodbridge, 1999). In the light of this recent research, it is clear that Bakhtin's generic distinctions are not especially helpful for our understanding of the Brut, though his views on language prove to be more fruitful. The moral dimension to language and its importance in shaping our response to the theme of betrayal in La^amon's poem is perceptively analysed in chaptct 1, whilst the exploration of the possible interaction between preaching andwriting (chapter 3) makes a number ofcogent points that will certainly be revisited by other scholars. Also notewotthy is the discussion ofthe function of Merlin and his prophecies in the Brut. This is a well-researched, carefully produced and clearly written piece of scholarship, that all students ofLa^amon and ofArthurian literature will read with profit. And while it will not prove to be as controversial as Daniel Donoghue's 1990 article, it is to be hoped that it will spark new research into hithetto unexplored aspects of the Brut. FRANÇOISE LE SAUX University of Reading BRIEF NOTICE: François amy de la BRETÈQUE, L'imaginaire médiéval dans le cinéma occidental. Paris: Honoré Champion Editeur, 2004. Pp.1277. isbn: 2-7453-12064-x. $170 euros. The study of cinema arthuriana begins in France in the 1940s as patt of the more general study ofcinema medievalia. More recently, no one has been a more frequent commentator on cinema arthuriana and medievalia than Professor Amy de la Bretèque. In what will doubtless for some time remain the definitive study ofWestern 'medieval cinema,' he discusses in varying detail more than 500 films. Of special interest to Atthurian scholars will be chapters 10-14 and 16 in which Amy de la Bretèque turns his attention to films about the Round Table, Gawain, Lancelot and Guinevere, Parsifal/Perceval, Merlin, and Tristan and Isolde. Those interested in broadet range of cinema medievalia will also want to read what the author has to say about the cinematic traditions of Robin Hood, Joan ofArc, and the Crusades, as well as about individual films such as Alexander Nevsky, Le Miracle des loups, Le Moine et la sorcière, The Name ofthe Rose, The Nibelungenlied, La Passion Béatrice, The Seventh Seal, and Les Visiteurs du soir. KEVIN J. HARTY \? Salle University ...

The purpose of the article is to research and analyse the development of marketing technologies in the fine art market from the ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century. The research methodology consists in the application of comparative, empirical, and theoretical methods. This methodological approach allows analysis of the formation process and the history of the development of fine art marketing, conducting a research of marketing processes during the promotion of works of art on the art market at different periods of human history. The scientific novelty consists in expanding ideas about the fine art market. The article explores for the first time marketing processes on the art market from the ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century. The article analyses for the first time the problems that were formed and overcome during the history of the emergence and development of marketing in the field of culture and art. Besides, for the first time, the theoretical foundations of fine art marketing and the ways of their practical implementation are analysed. Conclusions. The conducted analysis allowed us to determine that even before the emergence of the modern art market as an element of the general capitalist market, the movement of works of fine art already thousands of years ago, in the ancient times contained elements of marketing approaches and technologies. This movement was caused by the processes of sale and purchasing, exchanging, and collecting works of art. In particular, we are talking about the precursors of marketing approaches and technologies aimed at a kind of satisfaction of the demand for works of fine art in society; organisation of classification and collection of works of fine art; examination of their quality and originality; determining the methods of works of art promotion in society. All these methods were already available at that time. In general, we can talk about the existence before the emergence of the modern art market of works of fine art, the so-called «wild market», which in a certain way "regulated" the processes of the movement of works of art in society.
 Key words: art marketing, art market, works of art «wild market», marketing technologies.

Do members of different cultures express (or "encode") emotions in the same fashion? How well can members of distinct cultures recognize (or "decode") each other's emotion expressions? The question of cultural universality versus specificity in emotional expression has been a hot topic of debate for more than half a century, but, despite a sizeable amount of empirical research produced to date, no convincing answers have emerged. We suggest that this unsatisfactory state of affairs is due largely to a lack of concern with the precise mechanisms involved in emotion expression and perception, and propose to use a modified Brunswikian lens model as an appropriate framework for research in this area. On this basis we provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature and point to research paradigms that are likely to provide the evidence required to resolve the debate on universality vs. cultural specificity of emotional expression. Applying this fresh perspective, our analysis reveals that, given the paucity of pertinent data, no firm conclusions can be drawn on actual expression (encoding) patterns across cultures (although there appear to be more similarities than differences), but that there is compelling evidence for intercultural continuity in decoding, or recognition, ability. We also note a growing body of research on the notion of ingroup advantage due to expression "dialects," above and beyond the general encoding or decoding patterns. We furthermore suggest that these empirical patterns could be explained by both universality in the underlying mechanisms and cultural specificity in the input to, and the regulation of, these expression and perception mechanisms. Overall, more evidence is needed, both to further elucidate these mechanisms and to inventory the patterns of cultural effects. We strongly recommend using more solid conceptual and theoretical perspectives, as well as more ecologically valid approaches, in designing future studies in emotion expression and perception research.

Scholars have preferred the accounts of Joan of Arc's career in chronicles and in the reports of her trial to other contemporary sources from the realm of poetry and literature.' Literature offers, however, what history often does not: the image of Joan of Arc in her own time. The chronicles contain the events and chronology of the Maid's life, but they have little to say about the meaning of her unusual accomplishments as understood by her contemporaries interpretive comments about Joan's mission by the chroniclers are infrequent and naive. The literary sources, on the other hand, influenced by literary models, themes, and traditions, attempt to explain the meaning of Joan of Arc's career and often to justify it. The early poetry and ecclesiastical treatises are thus a rarely tapped source of contemporary commentary that may be studied to supplement the about Joan of Arc. Far from obscuring the historical reality of Joan of Arc, literature reveals more of that reality than can be determined from the facts alone. In certain cases literature seems even to shape the historical reality. Two themes in the literature about Joan of Arc are particularly important. The first of these is the association of Joan with biblical heroines. The churchmen who first investigated the validity of the Maid's mission cited Esther, Judith, and Deborah as precedents for what Joan of Arc promised to do. Using biblical models to lend authority to an argument was common practice in secular as in religious writing, and it is not surprising to find fifteenth-century poets like Christine de Pizan also comparing Joan of Arc to these biblical heroines. The second theme that marks the literature about Joan of Arc is prophecy. When Joan arrived on the historical scene, she became associated almost immediately with prophecies and prophetic-sounding patriotic literature that had been in circulation before 1429, the year she left Domremy.2

Article Summary Many kinds of psychological state can be expressed in or by works of art. But it is the artistic expression of emotion that has figured most prominently in philosophical discussions of art. Emotion is expressed in pictorial, literary, and other representational works of art by the characters who are depicted or in other ways presented in the works. We often identify the emotions of such characters in much the same way as we ordinarily identify the emotions of others, but we might also have special knowledge of a character’s emotional state, through direct access to their thoughts, for instance. A central case of the expression of emotion by works of art is the expression of emotion by a purely musical work. What is the source of the emotion expressed by a piece of music? While art engages its audience, often calling forth an emotional response, its expressiveness does not consist in this power. It is not because an art work tends to make us feel sad, for instance, that we call it sad; rather, we react as we do because sadness is present in it. And while artists usually contrive the expressiveness of their art works, sometimes expressing their own emotions in doing so, their success in the former activity does not depend on their doing the latter. Moreover, the expressiveness achieved has an immediacy and transparency, like that of genuine tears, apparently at odds with this sophisticated, controlled form of self-expression. It is because art presents emotion with simple directness that it can be a vehicle for self-expression, not vice versa. But if emotions are the experiences of sentient beings, to whom do those expressed in art belong if not to the artist or audience? Perhaps they are those of a fictional persona. We may imagine personae who undergo the emotions expressed in art, but it is not plain that we must do so to become aware of that expressiveness, for it is arguable that art works present appearances of emotions, as do masks, willow trees, and the like, rather than outward signs of occurrent feelings. Expressiveness is valuable because it helps us to understand emotions in general while contributing to the formation of an aesthetically satisfying whole.

Dissimilar processing of emotional facial expressions in human and monkey temporal cortex.

The conscious perception of emotional facial expressions plays an indispensable role in social interaction. However, previous psychological studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding whether conscious awareness is greater for emotional expressions than for neutral expressions. Furthermore, whether this phenomenon is attributable to emotional or visual factors remains unknown. To investigate these issues, we conducted five psychological experiments to test the conscious perception of emotional and neutral facial expressions using the match-to-sample paradigm. Facial stimuli were momentarily presented in the peripheral visual fields while participants read simultaneously presented letters in the central visual fields. The participants selected a perceived face from nine samples. The results of all experiments demonstrated that emotional expressions were more accurately identified than neutral expressions. Furthermore, Experiment 4 showed that angry expressions were identified more accurately than anti-angry expressions, which expressed neutral emotions with comparable physical changes to angry expressions. Experiment 5, testing the interaction between emotional expression and face direction, showed that angry expressions looking toward participants were more accurately identified than those looking away from participants, even though they were physically identical. These results suggest that the conscious awareness of emotional facial expressions is enhanced by their emotional significance.

Body of Art and Love

Background and aimParkinson’s disease (PD) patients have impairment of facial expressivity (hypomimia) and difficulties in interpreting the emotional facial expressions produced by others, especially for aversive emotions. We aimed to evaluate the ability to produce facial emotional expressions and to recognize facial emotional expressions produced by others in a group of PD patients and a group of healthy participants in order to explore the relationship between these two abilities and any differences between the two groups of participants.MethodsTwenty non-demented, non-depressed PD patients and twenty healthy participants (HC) matched for demographic characteristics were studied. The ability of recognizing emotional facial expressions was assessed with the Ekman 60-faces test (Emotion recognition task). Participants were video-recorded while posing facial expressions of 6 primary emotions (happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear and anger). The most expressive pictures for each emotion were derived from the videos. Ten healthy raters were asked to look at the pictures displayed on a computer-screen in pseudo-random fashion and to identify the emotional label in a six-forced-choice response format (Emotion expressivity task). Reaction time (RT) and accuracy of responses were recorded. At the end of each trial the participant was asked to rate his/her confidence in his/her perceived accuracy of response.ResultsFor emotion recognition, PD reported lower score than HC for Ekman total score (p<0.001), and for single emotions sub-scores happiness, fear, anger, sadness (p<0.01) and surprise (p = 0.02). In the facial emotion expressivity task, PD and HC significantly differed in the total score (p = 0.05) and in the sub-scores for happiness, sadness, anger (all p<0.001). RT and the level of confidence showed significant differences between PD and HC for the same emotions. There was a significant positive correlation between the emotion facial recognition and expressivity in both groups; the correlation was even stronger when ranking emotions from the best recognized to the worst (R = 0.75, p = 0.004).ConclusionsPD patients showed difficulties in recognizing emotional facial expressions produced by others and in posing facial emotional expressions compared to healthy subjects. The linear correlation between recognition and expression in both experimental groups suggests that the two mechanisms share a common system, which could be deteriorated in patients with PD. These results open new clinical and rehabilitation perspectives.

This thesis examines the role of facial mimicry during tasks of facial emotional expression recognition. The first study examines whether facial proprioception modulates the ability to recognise facial expressions, and/or facial mimicry. Results showed that, although mimicry was detected, participants' recognition ability was not modulated by their facial proprioceptive ability. Study 2 examines whether and how the presence of contextual information that are either congruent or incongruent with emotional facial expressions modulates the accuracy of the recognition of the expression and/or facial mimicry. Study 3 has a similar method and design to the second and includes both clear-cut and low-intensity emotional facial expressions. Taken together, Studies 2 and 3 show that the ambiguity of facial expressions and/or the affective incongruence of linguistic context decreased the recognition ability of happy and angry faces. In the fourth chapter we report two EEG-EMG studies (Study 4 and 5) aimed at examining the relationship between facial mimicry and ERPs associated with emotional processing (EPN and N400). The two studies compare the time-course of these ERPs with that of facial mimicry during a fast valence detection task (Study 4) and an explicit emotional recognition task (Study 5), to examine the interplay between cognitive processes and facial mimicry. The facial expressions used in both studies cover four levels of intensity per emotion. Study 4 involves a valence detection task of rapidly exposed emotional facial expressions. The task of Study 5 measured instead the participant's ability to recognise discrete emotional expressions. Findings from both studies are in line with the hypothesis that N400 is sensitive to the augmented demand of an emotion recognition task. The studies' findings suggest that internal simulation occurs especially in case of increased task demand and develops through a complementary cognitive-peripheral process where mimicry responds selectively in respect to central activity.

Using still pictures of emotional facial expressions as experimental stimuli, reduced amygdala responses or impaired recognition of basic emotions were repeatedly found in people with psychopathic traits. The amygdala also plays an important role in short‐latency facial mimicry responses. Since dynamic emotional facial expressions may have higher ecological validity than still pictures, we compared short‐latency facial mimicry responses to dynamic and static emotional expressions between adolescents with psychopathic traits and normal controls. Facial EMG responses to videos or still pictures of emotional expressions (happiness, anger, sadness, fear) were measured. Responses to 500‐ms dynamic expressions in videos, as well as the subsequent 1500‐ms phase of maximal (i.e., static) expression, were compared between male adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders and high (n = 14) or low (n = 17) callous‐unemotional (CU) traits, and normal control subjects (n = 32). Responses to still pictures were also compared between groups. EMG responses to dynamic expressions were generally significantly smaller in the high‐CU group than in the other two groups, which generally did not differ. These group differences gradually emerged during the 500‐ms stimulus presentation period but in general they were already seen a few hundred milliseconds after stimulus onset. Group differences were absent during the 1500‐ms phase of maximal expression and during exposure to still pictures. Subnormal short‐latency mimicry responses to dynamic emotional facial expressions in the high‐CU group might have negative consequences for understanding emotional facial expressions of others during daily life when human facial interactions are primarily dynamic.

Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that facial recognition and emotional expressions are dissociable. However, it is unknown if a single system supports the processing of emotional and non-emotional facial expressions. We aimed to understand if individuals with impairment in face recognition from birth (congenital prosopagnosia, CP) can use non-emotional facial expressions to recognize a face as an already seen one, and thus, process this facial dimension independently from features (which are impaired in CP), and basic emotional expressions. To this end, we carried out a behavioral study in which we compared the performance of 6 CP individuals to that of typical development individuals, using upright and inverted faces. Four avatar faces with a neutral expression were presented in the initial phase. The target faces presented in the recognition phase, in which a recognition task was requested (2AFC paradigm), could be identical (neutral) to those of the initial phase or present biologically plausible changes to features, non-emotional expressions, or emotional expressions. After this task, a second task was performed, in which the participants had to detect whether or not the recognized face exactly matched the study face or showed any difference. The results confirmed the CPs' impairment in the configural processing of the invariant aspects of the face, but also showed a spared configural processing of non-emotional facial expression (task 1). Interestingly and unlike the non-emotional expressions, the configural processing of emotional expressions was compromised in CPs and did not improve their change detection ability (task 2). These new results have theoretical implications for face perception models since they suggest that, at least in CPs, non-emotional expressions are processed configurally, can be dissociated from other facial dimensions, and may serve as a compensatory strategy to achieve face recognition.

Accurate processing of social and affective cues, especially facial cues, is important for human adaptation. Previous studies have examined depressed adults' sensitivity to identify emotional facial expressions, yet only one study has investigated this in depressed youth. In addition, very little is known about whether depressed individuals exhibit biases when incorrectly labeling, or misclassifying, emotional expressions. Therefore, this preliminary study explored whether sensitivity to, or misclassification of, emotional facial expressions differed among currently depressed youth, those with a history of depression, and never-depressed control participants. A community sample of 280 youth (7–16 years; M = 11.51, SD = 2.44; 56% girls) completed a forced-choice emotion identification task consisting of a series of randomly presented facial images that morphed an emotional expression (angry, happy, and sad) with a neutral expression in 10% increments (e.g., 10% sad/90% neutral; 20% sad/80% neutral). Findings demonstrated that currently depressed were more likely than remitted and never-depressed youth to misclassify happy and sad facial expressions as angry. No depression group differences were found in sensitivity to identify emotional expressions. Results suggest that currently depressed youth show biased perceptions of threat, which may contribute to the maintenance of their depressive symptoms.

Despite the heterogeneity between East and West in terms of emotional expression, there are some commonalities in their works of art. This study explores the heterogeneity and commonality of emotional expression in Eastern and Western painting, focusing on the works of abstract expressionist Mark Rothko and Chinese artist Zhang Xiaogang. Rothko’s art seeks to evoke fundamental human emotions such as tragedy, ecstasy, and doom through his innovative use of color and form, leaving a profound impact on viewers. In contrast, Zhang Xiaogang emphasizes internalized and contemplative emotional expression, reflecting on individual destiny and historical themes, thereby illustrating the cultural distinctions in emotional expression between the East and the West. Despite the differences between the East and the West in terms of cultural background, aesthetic concepts, and artistic traditions, both Eastern and Western artworks convey deep emotional connotations and reflections on life and society. These differences and commonalities not only enrich the diversity of global art but also foster exchanges and integration between distinct cultures.

Two experiments were run to examine the effects of dynamic displays of facial expressions of emotions on time judgments. The participants were given a temporal bisection task with emotional facial expressions presented in a dynamic or a static display. Two emotional facial expressions and a neutral expression were tested and compared. Each of the emotional expressions had the same affective valence (unpleasant), but one was high-arousing (expressing anger) and the other low-arousing (expressing sadness). Our results showed that time judgments are highly sensitive to movements in facial expressions and the emotions expressed. Indeed, longer perceived durations were found in response to the dynamic faces and the high-arousing emotional expressions compared to the static faces and low-arousing expressions. In addition, the facial movements amplified the effect of emotions on time perception. Dynamic facial expressions are thus interesting tools for examining variations in temporal judgments in different social contexts.