Marine pollution management in response to plastic waste under international law and national law – challenges and implications for developing countries: a case study of Vietnam

A few times a year, volunteers fan out along the causeway that links the South Carolina mainland with the seashore community of Folly Beach to clean up plastic bottles, straws, bags, and other debris from along the road and the salt marsh. Some of this debris has come from cities miles away. On windy days, litter is often blown off city streets into waterways. During rainstorms, debris floats into drains that empty into rivers. Other trash probably came from places closer to home. “I see bags and other plastic flying off the beds of pickup trucks going down the causeway,” says Marty Morganello, who organizes the cleanups for the Charleston-area chapter of the nonprofit Surfrider Foundation. “I see them coming out the open windows of cars and out the backs of garbage trucks and even recycling trucks. This material is lightweight, and if you don’t secure it, it will fly away.” By one estimate, the volume of plastic debris going into the world’s oceans could more than double by 2025, assuming current trends in coastal development and plastics use. Some countries have begun identifying ways to improve management of plastic ... Beach cleanups yield enormous amounts of trash, with plastic items a major constituent.1 Although the human health impacts of this marine plastic pollution remain poorly characterized, it is widely seen as an emerging problem that deserves much more research attention.2 Likewise, there is a growing urgency among industry, government, nongovernmental organizations, and environmental groups to develop tools and policies to track, capture, and recycle plastic waste before it reaches the ocean.

Plastic marine pollution has become a global concern. It brings negative impacts not only on coastal areas but also on remote islands where the production of plastic waste is measly, including in Baolang Village located in Pantar Island, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. An essential effort to address the problem is initiating the formation of community networks for sustainable plastic marine pollution management in remote islands. In the case of Baolang Village, the community networks were initiated by implementing the 7-strategy method, developed by the research team. The study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the 7-strategy method to initiate the establishment of community networks for sustainable plastic marine pollution management in Baolang Village. The 7-strategy method had been exercised against 8 effectiveness parameters. All parameters have reached the expected targets; even some parameters have exceeded the targets. In conclusion, the 7-strategy method can effectively initiate the establishment of community networks for sustainable marine plastic pollution management in the case of Baolang Village. Moreover, an additional essential benefit of the 7-strategy method is that it can strengthen cooperation among various stakeholders in terms of sustainable marine pollution management.

Policy scenario of plastic waste mitigation in Indonesia using system dynamics.

Density of crossing vessels in straits used for international navigation, such as in the Malacca Strait, allows the occurrence of serious pollution of sea water in the strait. In addressing marine pollution in straits used for international navigation in Indonesia, it is necessary to the management arrangements of marine pollution in straits used for international navigation in Indonesia. In connection with the management of marine pollution in straits used for international navigation, it is deemed necessary to have the ideal management of marine pollution in straits used for international navigation in Indonesia. This research is a law that is normative by using a main approach of legislation, with a source of legal materials through library research. Indonesia has ratified the Convention 1982 on the Law of the Sea through Act No. 17 of 1985; therefore, the Indonesian government should establish law as a legal product that regulates Indonesia as an archipelagic State traveled its waters by foreign ships of the easy and high chance in causing sea pollution. The concept of the ideal management of marine pollution in straits used for international navigation is integrated and coordinated by the agency related to the marine pollution in Indonesia. By using the marine pollution liability compensation to the principle of strict liability, it could beneficial for the injured party due to marine pollution. It is expected that the Indonesian government immediately establishes statutory laws and regulations relating to the management of pollution at sea; the academics at universities participating socializing marine management in particular marine pollution from shipping foreign vessels in Indonesian waters. Keyword : Management of Marine Pollution; Straits Used for International Shipping; Convention 1982 on the Law of the Sea; Indonesia

Plastic pollution and infectious diseases

The problem of plastic pollution is complex. There are some suggestions and views related to this plastic pollution. Microalgae species used to synthesize bioplastic. In Thailand there are 3 main obstacles Thailand’s government, private sector, and citizens from engaging in the sort of collective action needed to reduce marine plastic pollution. In Spain, a revision of European and Spanish legislation about plastics and marine pollution is needed and some strategies to reduce this kind of contamination in Spain. In Canada, recommendations to strengthen Single Use Plastic (SUP) management strategies and mitigate plastic pollution to improve future Canadian SUP reduction policies. Bangladesh raising a concern among the appropriate authorities to develop policies and impose necessary actions against plastic pollution before it is too late. Saudi Arabia demand a compressive solution that ranges from governmental policies to engineering solution to lessen the use of plastic in minimizing global carbon emissions and from Malaysia suggest better understanding of how human security can be factored into the crisis resolution of plastic waste pollution. A realistic transformation towards eco-effective nation

Editorial and News

<p>Plastic mulch is widely used in agriculture to decrease the water evaporation, increase the soil temperature, or prevent weeds. Most plastic mulches are made of highly resistant Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE). The incomplete removal of polyethylene mulch after usage causes plastic pollution. Pro-oxidant Additive Containing (PAC) and “biodegradable” (Bio) plastics were developed to avoid the need of plastic removal while preventing the plastic debris accumulation. In conventional agriculture, the use of pesticides releases substances which can be sorbed to soil particles and plastic debris. Pesticides and their residues may affect the soil microbial community. Some microbial groups are capable of using applied pesticide as a source of energy and nutrients to multiply, whereas the pesticide may be toxic to other organisms. Little is known about the long term effects of plastic debris accumulations in relation with pesticides residues. We studied 36 parcels in commercial farms, either organic or conventional, where plastic mulch has been used for 5 to 20 years in Cartagena’s country side (SE Spain). We compared the macro and micro plastic debris contents, pesticides residue levels, soil physiochemical properties in the soil surface among all parcels. Eighteen insecticides, 17 fungicides, and 6 herbicides were analysed with LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS systems. The ribosomal 16S and ITS DNA variable regions were sequenced to study shifts in bacterial and fungal communities, respectively. We found accumulation of plastic debris in all soil samples, plastic contents being higher in soils from organic farms. The average plastic concentration  in both managements was 0.20±0.26 g/kg of plastic debris. Soils under conventional management contained on average more than 6 different pesticide residues and an overall pesticides  concentration of 0.20±0.18 mg/kg. The interactions between plastic debris concentration and pesticide concentration will be presented, together with the interaction of plastic and pesticides in soil with changes in soil microbial communities, identifying the most sensitive groups which can act as bioindicators for plastic and pesticide pollution in soil.</p>

Plastic pollution has accumulated in the marine environment due to an exponential rise in its usage in contemporary civilization and insufficient waste management. There is mounting evidence of a variety of mechanisms via which marine plastic pollution has an impact at many levels of biological organization. Ecological communities and ecosystem functioning will inevitably be impacted. One unanswered question is whether, today or in the future, the concentration of plastic in the ocean will reach levels above a critical threshold, causing global effects in vital Earth-system processes, allowing marine plastic pollution to be considered a key component of the planetary boundary threat associated with chemical pollutants. The impacts of plastic pollution in marine ecosystems, as well as the ‘core planetary limits’, biosphere integrity, and climate change, are reviewed and evaluated to see if there are any possible solutions to this issue. Because marine plastic pollution is irreversible and ubiquitous throughout the world, two critical criteria for a planetary boundary danger have already been fulfilled. Plastic pollution's effects on the Earth system are yet unknown, although routes and mechanisms for thresholds and global systemic change have been discovered. Regardless of whether plastic is recognized as a new entity in the planetary boundaries paradigm, marine plastic pollution is undeniably linked with global processes to the point that it requires careful control and prevention.

Marine litter is a crucial health and environmental issue in the global sense for not only humankind but also for cetaceans, marine life, and other flying and land animals. It is known that marine litter has significant environmental, economic, health, and aesthetic effects. Marine litter is a permanent, manufactured, or processed solid material which is discarded, disposed, or abandoned from any source into marine and coastal environments. It can be composed of the wastes and particles of abandoned waste textile products, synthetic garments and their fragments, fishing nets, fishing lines, industrial product wastes and industrial plastic production wastes such as plastic bottles and plastic containers (mostly made from synthetic polymers), vehicle tire dusts, and breakdown of litter and cosmetic products. In most cases, plastics are one of the most important components of marine litter because of their very slow decay rates. It is stated that approximately 90% of the marine litter is composed of plastic material wastes and 5–13 million tonnes of plastic waste litter are released to the marine-related environment per year. The amount of plastic waste in the seas is likely to continue to increase, mainly due to the negative increase in plastic consumption (about 9% per annum) and the inadequacy of its reuse, recycling, and waste management practices. The entanglement and ingestion of marine litter directly damage wild animals and their environment. Accumulation of marine litter on the seabed, accumulation of trash, and seagrass deposits in coral reefs cause damage to the natural habitat and damage the ecosystem. Plastic entanglement and ingestion problems by the animals are the main issues with macroplastics. On the other hand, plastic ingestion and accumulation problems by the animals are the main issues with microplastics. Microplastics in marine litter can be generated through microbeads, pellets, abrasion of especially car tires, textile materials and textile products, the decay of mesoplastics and macroplastics, and so on. Microfibers and microfibrils, which may be generated during ordinary home laundry cycles due to the agitation and beating nature of the washing process and end up in sewage, are also a subcategory of microplastics. Ingestion of microplastic and microparticle marine litter can cause many health problems. Microplastics in the sea enter the body of living sea creatures. As a result of these marine organisms, such as fishes, being consumed by humans, these microplastics and their remnants enter the human body and cause further health problems. Plastic materials enter to the seas and oceans end up on ocean floor, sea sides, beaches, and ocean surfaces. Unfortunately, degradation of these plastic waste litters in the marine environment needs centuries. Various measures are taken to remove the plastic wastes from the seas and seashores. Coastal cleaning activities and cleaning nets taken to the coasts are some of the most commonly used methods. The most common approaches for collected marine litter can also be storage or incineration. However, these methods may not be always ideal solutions because of limited storage space and pollution risks. The most likely solution for the destruction of plastic marine litter is the plastic recycling technologies commonly used in the processing of industrial wastes. The waste plastic and plastic parts collected from the seas and seashores are separated from each other by various methods and then each type of the recovered polymer, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymer, polypropylene (PP) polymer, and polyamide (PA) polymer, can be included in the recycling processes at their relevant recycling facilities. Plastic recycling technologies can typically be classified in three ways: mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, and thermal recycling. In this chapter, marine litter and recycling of marine litter and ocean plastics are comprehensively reviewed. First of all, the information regarding marine litter sources, marine litter types, and the contribution of synthetic fibers to marine litter via laundry (washing) cycles is given. Then, the ecological and socioeconomic effects of marine litter are discussed. Afterward, the precautions against marine litter and recycling of marine litter (mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, and thermal recycling) are mentioned. Finally, the recent commercial developments for marine litter recycling are covered.

An estimated 80% of marine plastic pollution is caused by land-based activities. Obstacles to curbing land-based sources of marine plastic pollution in the Global South can be attributed to overburdened waste management facilities lacking the capacity to deal with rapidly increasing plastic waste generation. In India, the national government has introduced several policy regulations to promote source segregation and proper handling of all solid waste streams, including plastic. These regulations address marine plastic pollution with actions to ease the burden on waste management infrastructure and curb plastic leakage. Most notable is The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (henceforth, Rules), which was notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change of the Government of India. The Rules as per Clause 8 outline the responsibility of waste generators to minimize plastic waste, segregate at source, and ensure forward linkage of plastic waste to curb plastic leakage. The Rules also iterate the need for further alignment with The Solid Waste Management Rules, calling for decentralized waste management, where appropriate, to boost efficiency of waste management. Bulk waste generators, that is any entity producing more than 100 kg solid waste/day, alone account for 30-40% of the daily waste in India. This includes residential communities such as gated communities where the standard operating procedure so far has been the collection of co-mingled waste then sent to the corporation dustbins. The selected case study deep dives into a gated community in the city of Chennai, The Atrium, winner of the ‘Swachh Survekshan 2021’ award for efficient solid waste management to help illustrate a pathway to achieve zero-landfill status for residential communities. Through this, a framework for source segregation and decentralized waste management for gated communities in the Global South is outlined. The adoption of this framework has the collective potential to curb marine plastic pollution massively.

Congested crossings going vessels in the strait used for international navigation such as the Malacca Strait, allowing the serious pollution of the sea water in the strait. How does the application of the principle of strict liability in the management of marine pollution in the Straits used for international navigation under the Convention on Law of the Sea 1982 in Indonesia? This research is a normative law, the main approach in legislation (statute approach), with the source material through the law library research. Indonesia has ratified the Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 through Law no. 17 In 1985 the Indonesian government should establish laws that regulate a legal product on the management of marine pollution in particular in the straits used for international shipping considering Indonesia as an archipelago crowded waters traversed by large foreign ships in an easy and highly probable do pollution at sea. The application of the principle of strict liability is appropriate and relevant use in marine pollution liability for damages in the Straits used for international shipping as Idi Indonesian waters in the Strait of Malacca and the weapon system of archipelagic sea-groove Indonesia because Indonesia as favorable to the State Island Countries. compensated by the mean absolute responsibility, obligations to pay compensation to the beach arises immediately upon the oil spill in the sea without regard to guilt or innocence tanker or ship traffic in the Strait of Malacca done by using the right of transit passage and responsibility for compensation is associated with a number of limited liability or the ceiling or ceiling system.

The issue of "white pollution" at popular tourist destinations of environmental pollution is rising at an alarming rate. According to statistics, Vietnam currently ranks fourth in the world in volume of plastic waste, with approximately 730,000 tons of plastic waste going to the sea every year. Vietnam is also known as a country with twice the amount of plastic waste compared to low-income countries. Plastic waste in the ocean will destroy the natural environment, negatively affecting the lives of aquatic products. On land, plastic waste is abundant in many places and has serious impacts on human health and life. Analysts point out that, if the pace of use of plastic products continues to increase, there will be an additional 33 billion tons of plastic produced by 2050 and thus more than 13 billion tons of plastic waste will be buried. backfill into landfills or into the ocean. Meanwhile, the recycling of Vietnam's plastic waste, has not been developed. The rate of waste sorting at the source is very low, most types of waste are put together and collected by waste trucks. Plastic recycling technology used in Vietnam's major cities is outdated, low in efficiency, high in costs and polluting the environment. The paper presents the current situation of plastic waste in Vietnam as of June 2019. The authors focus on highlighting the serious "white pollution" in Vietnam, a country with a very long coastline. But the coast is really threatened by plastic waste. This is really a wake-up call to the authorities about the promulgation of policies and the people on the morality of survival with nature.

Marine plastic pollution remains one of the greatest problems worldwide. Hence, this study explores the attitudes and pro-environmental behaviors of Peruvian and Chilean citizens regarding marine pollution, with an emphasis on plastic pollution. For this, forty-four semi-structured interviews were conducted with Peruvian (n = 24) and Chilean (n = 20) citizens, of which, through thematic analysis, semantic patterns were identified. Results show that the participants' representation of the sea is positive and related to the connection they report having with this environment. Additionally, it was found that the sea fulfills recreational and economic purposes, reflecting an anthropocentric perspective, since it is associated with leisure and resource extraction, respectively. Both purposes are related to the causes of plastic pollution, although with differentiated effects. Anthropocentrism is also reflected in the direction that environmental concern takes towards the impact of this type of pollution predominately on individuals and society. Regarding pro-environmental behaviors, most of the initiatives proposed by the participants in response to marine plastic pollution correspond to individual actions, which could be due to the fact that they perceive a low commitment level from authorities to address the problem. In particular, the Chilean participants attributed a greater role to their authorities in dealing with plastic pollution, which would indicate a more institutional perspective of the problem. Thus, it is proposed that to address marine plastic pollution it is necessary to articulate individual actions with public policies carried out by social stakeholders such as governments, companies and non-governmental organizations, in order to build a more efficient culture of marine protection.

Plastic waste management, a matter for the 'community'.