Marine iodine emissions in a changing world.

Lucy J Carpenter,Mat J Evans,Rosie J Chance,Claire Hughes,Lloyd D J Hollis,David P Stevens,Helmke Hepach,Stephen M Ball,Timothy D Jickells,Thomas J Adams,Liselotte Tinel,Tomás Sherwen,Martin R Wadley,Anoop Mahajan

doi:10.1098/rspa.2020.0824

Abstract

Iodine is a critical trace element involved in many diverse and important processes in the Earth system. The importance of iodine for human health has been known for over a century, with low iodine in the diet being linked to goitre, cretinism and neonatal death. Research over the last few decades has shown that iodine has significant impacts on tropospheric photochemistry, ultimately impacting climate by reducing the radiative forcing of ozone (O3) and air quality by reducing extreme O3 concentrations in polluted regions. Iodine is naturally present in the ocean, predominantly as aqueous iodide and iodate. The rapid reaction of sea-surface iodide with O3 is believed to be the largest single source of gaseous iodine to the atmosphere. Due to increased anthropogenic O3, this release of iodine is believed to have increased dramatically over the twentieth century, by as much as a factor of 3. Uncertainties in the marine iodine distribution and global cycle are, however, major constraints in the effective prediction of how the emissions of iodine and its biogeochemical cycle may change in the future or have changed in the past. Here, we present a synthesis of recent results by our team and others which bring a fresh perspective to understanding the global iodine biogeochemical cycle. In particular, we suggest that future climate-induced oceanographic changes could result in a significant change in aqueous iodide concentrations in the surface ocean, with implications for atmospheric air quality and climate.

Highlights

Subject Areas: atmospheric chemistry, environmental chemistry, oceanography Keywords: iodine, iodide, halogens, sea–air interactions, ozone, global iodine cycle
Our iodine ocean cycling model indicates that additional factors including primary productivity, biological community structure and vertical mixing all have a role in determining surface iodide concentrations, so it is anticipated that changes in these processes may cause further changes in atmospheric iodine emissions over the coming decades
The study of iodine on an Earth system scale is extremely challenging because its biogeochemical cycles occur on a vast array of timescales—from seconds for some atmospheric processes to up to millennia in the ocean

Summary

Iodine in the atmosphere

Atmospheric iodine is mainly derived from the oceans, which contain approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface inventory of natural iodine [1]. There was no correlation between measured and modelled IO levels across the entire dataset, the GEOS-Chem modelled IO showed a significant positive correlation with observed IO above the 99% confidence limit for data north of the polar front These discrepancies highlight the major uncertainties which still exist in our understanding of iodine biogeochemistry and call for further studies of IO and related halogenated species in the ocean and atmosphere. Model calculations show that reaction R1 has the potential to reduce surface O3 mixing ratios through O3 deposition alone by several ppb [46,47,48], which is of a magnitude where it can influence human exposure and impact on ecosystems and agricultural crop yields Both the mechanistic details and the rates of oceanic O3 deposition are subject to much greater uncertainty than deposition to land, which translates into large differences in the predicted global ocean dry deposition flux [44]

Sea-surface iodide

Iodine in the ocean

Development of an ocean iodine cycling model

Past and future impacts of iodine on the atmosphere

Findings

Conclusion and future developments