Abstract
Alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. is an amphibious plant that aggressively invades aquatic and terrestrial environments. It has invaded at least 14 countries and is difficult to control. The present study investigates the effectiveness of herbicides and physical removal in eliminating patches of aquatic alligator weed in an early stage of invasion. This paper firstly describes a screening trial to determine the relative efficacy of single application of three herbicides used in Australia (glyphosate, metsulfuron-methyl ± surfactant, and dichlobenil), each applied at three rates to containers of alligator weed. Control was greatest for all herbicides at rates higher than the manufacturer’s recommendation (label rate). Glyphosate at 3 × label rate (3.6 kg a.i. ha -1 ; 10.8 g a.i. L -1 ) and dichlobenil at 2 × label rate (31 kg a.i. ha -1 ) provided the greatest level of control at 48 and 91 weeks after treatment. The presence of surfactant did not improve metsulfuronmethyl efficacy. Field studies were then carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of repeated physical removal and repeated applications of chosen herbicides to eliminate patches of aquatic alligator weed in an early stage of invasion of two urban streams in Melbourne, Australia. Glyphosate and metsulfuron-methyl (without a surfactant) were applied to patches of aquatic alligator weed in a best practice regime, consisting of up to three applications per year for up to five consecutive years. Glyphosate was applied at 3 × label rate, as well as at label rate. No alligator weed remained after two years of the herbicide application regime for patches treated with metsulfuron-methyl, while for glyphosate alligator weed remained in only one of 18 patches after three years. Physical removal eliminated 75% of patches after initial treatment and minimal follow up treatments were required where regrowth occurred. This study demonstrates that the management methods utilised are capable of eliminating patches of aquatic alligator weed in an early stage of invasion in two to three years.
Highlights
An important introduction pathway for aquatic alien species is the growing trade of wildlife for ornamental purposes (Padilla and Williams 2004; Strecker et al 2011; Masin et al 2014)
The presence of the North American Marmorkrebs (Procambarus fallax f. virginalis) in European inland waters is entirely driven by ongoing propagule pressure from the ornamental trade
In line with related research, the probability of Marmorkrebs release was largely affected by gross domestic product and human population density, i.e. predictors very likely related to the density of Marmorkrebs owners, whereas environmental suitability was mostly influenced by minimum temperature and the availability of lentic habitats, which was indirectly assessed by terrain slope
Summary
An important introduction pathway for aquatic alien species is the growing trade of wildlife for ornamental purposes (Padilla and Williams 2004; Strecker et al 2011; Masin et al 2014). This study links a maximum-entropy model that forecasts the probability of Marmorkrebs introduction based on socio-economic predictors to an updated species distribution model based on environmental predictors in order to explore the risk of further Marmorkrebs establishment in Europe.
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