Abstract
Direct communication and bargaining between leaders can provide a basis for arms reductions. Summitry between Donald Trump and Kim Jong Un, however, has personalized bargaining to an extent that complicates agreement and narrows rooms for compromise. Personalizing a long-standing inter-state conflict into a standoff between heads of state increases the role of emotions, personalities and size of domestic audiences. Failed summitry in 2019 disappointed expectations of deal-making and entailed loss of face (and faith). The current impasse of absent negotiations and resumed provocations by Pyongyang illustrates that changing the style of diplomacy does not necessarily entail different outcomes.
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