Abstract
Humans are exposed to a complex mix of man-made electric and magnetic fields (MFs) at many different frequencies, at home and at work. Epidemiological studies indicate that there is a positive relationship between residential/domestic and occupational exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and some types of cancer, although some other studies indicate no relationship. In this review, after an introduction on the MF definition and a description of natural/anthropogenic sources, the epidemiology of residential/domestic and occupational exposure to MFs and cancer is reviewed, with reference to leukemia, brain, and breast cancer. The in vivo and in vitro effects of MFs on cancer are reviewed considering both human and animal cells, with particular reference to the involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS). MF application on cancer diagnostic and therapy (theranostic) are also reviewed by describing the use of different magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications for the detection of several cancers. Finally, the use of magnetic nanoparticles is described in terms of treatment of cancer by nanomedical applications for the precise delivery of anticancer drugs, nanosurgery by magnetomechanic methods, and selective killing of cancer cells by magnetic hyperthermia. The supplementary tables provide quantitative data and methodologies in epidemiological and cell biology studies. Although scientists do not generally agree that there is a cause-effect relationship between exposure to MF and cancer, MFs might not be the direct cause of cancer but may contribute to produce ROS and generate oxidative stress, which could trigger or enhance the expression of oncogenes.
Highlights
Public concern about electromagnetic fields (EMFs) from power systems is increasing along with the electricity demand, wireless technologies, and changes in work systems and social behavior [1,2,3,4]
Since the first studies suggesting a relationship between MF and childhood cancer [29], the scientific community has evaluated the possible mechanisms for the effects of MFs on biological systems
There is a consensus on the positive relationship between residential/domestic exposure to extremely low-frequency (ELF) EMF and the occurrence of brain cancer, whereas contrasting results require more experimentation to assess the influence of occupational exposure to MFs on brain cancer
Summary
Public concern about electromagnetic fields (EMFs) from power systems is increasing along with the electricity demand, wireless technologies, and changes in work systems and social behavior [1,2,3,4]. SF (0 Hz) occurs in batteries, at high voltage direct current transmission lines (HVDC lines), where underground cables are present, with permanent magnets, between objects with different electrical charges, and in the GMF. 106 km 100,000 km 18,000 km 6000 km 1000 km 100 km 10 km 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 10 mm 10 mm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 780 nm 380 nm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 100 pm 10 pm 1 pm GMF, permanent magnets, transmission lines, HVDC lines, batteries, between objects with different electrical charges, MRI Technical appliances such as power lines, wiring and household appliances such as appliances for heating (e.g., electric cooker, electric heating, washing machine, electric water heater, iron), appliances with a transformer or magnetic coils (e.g., radio clock, low-voltage halogen lamps, television set, WiFi) and appliances with an electric motor (e.g., vacuum cleaner, drill, hand blender, hair dryer, electric cars). In the natural environment EMFs with intermediate frequencies (1 kHz–10 MHz) can be generated during the so-called sferics, which are broadband EM impulses that occur in the Earth’s atmosphere as a consequences of lightning discharges. It is dependent on the type of source how fast the field decreases (Figure 1)
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