Abstract
Lutein and zeaxanthin belong to the xanthophyll family of carotenoids, which are pigments produced by plants. Structurally, they are very similar, differing only slightly in the arrangement of atoms. Key sources of these carotenoids include kale, savoy cabbage, spinach, broccoli, peas, parsley, corn, and egg yolks. The recommended daily intake of lutein is approximately 10.0 mg and that of zeaxanthin is 2 mg. Lutein intake in adults varies, with average intakes being 1–2 mg/day. Due to the lack of synthesis of consumption of these compounds in humans, these substances are extremely important for the proper functioning of certain organs of the body (eye, skin, heart, intestines). Eating a lot of dark leafy vegetables and some fruits can help to prevent our bodies from developing diseases. The protective effects of carotenoids are mainly related to their defense against oxidative stress and their ability to scavenge free radicals. Lutein and zeaxanthin are the only dietary carotenoids that accumulate in the retina, specifically the macula, and are called macular pigments. These carotenoids are concentrated by the action of specific binding proteins such as StARD3, which binds lutein, and GSTP1, which binds zeaxanthin and its dietary metabolite, mesozeaxanthin. It has been shown that supportive therapy with lutein and zeaxanthin can have a beneficial effect in delaying the progression of eye diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and cataracts. This article presents the current state of knowledge on the role of lutein and zeaxanthin, especially from human studies targeting their metabolism and bioavailability, with recommendations to consume xanthophyll-rich foods.
Highlights
Carotenoids can be divided into carotenes, e.g., α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene, torulene, isorenieratene, and their oxygen derivatives, xanthophylls, containing oxygen in the molecule in the form of hydroxyl, epoxy, or carbonyl groups, e.g., lutein, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, and echinaxanthin
Secondary analysis showed that the progression of dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD) to advanced AMD was 31% lower in the AREDS plus lutein and zeaxanthin groups compared to placebo
There are studies showing that higher dietary antioxidant intake, including with lutein and zeaxanthin, can significantly reduce early AMD associated with genetic risk variants
Summary
Carotenoids can be divided into carotenes, e.g., α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene, torulene, isorenieratene, and their oxygen derivatives, xanthophylls, containing oxygen in the molecule in the form of hydroxyl, epoxy, or carbonyl groups, e.g., lutein, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, and echinaxanthin. Due to the presence of hydroxyl groups in the carbon ring in the molecule, compared to carotenoids, xanthophylls are more polar compounds, absorbing radiation of shorter wavelengths. The presence of a minimum of seven double bonds in the chain determines that carotenoids are yellow to red coloring substances in both plants and animals. Lutein is an unsaturated polyene hydrocarbon composed of eight isoprene residues, forming a carbon chain with 40 carbon atoms and two—OH groups in β-ionone rings. Lutein is an unsaturated polyene hydrocarbon composed of eight2isoof 1-4 preneCrheesmidiucaesll,yf,olrumteining iascaanrbuonnscahtuairnatwedithpo40lyceanrebohnydatroomcasrbaonnd tcwomo —posOeHd ogfroeuigphstinisβo-iporneonneerersinidgus.esT,hfeorcmarinbogna sckaerbleotnonchhaaisntwwiothe4n0dcsa, rabnodnbaotothmhsaavnedatwmool—ecuOlHe cgornotuapinsiinngβaonloconloiceoehdlldoyycficfiuennnnnfcceouccalltgguleoulxueuluerdiiuttneicrcritTtbTdhdhninetenTendlhdhhehososgiieyhnfg,in,eueeuuerunolpblxelixrrbsbesenuf.ftsoeireiuouoaolalntngsonnnenerudmudmugsgcduydytbbni.niemhnlnlcsppofiosfdTde,tnsosoggsrrnnuhtatoriofriirdrfcdtntrloemnmnccruouolhesgsroueecccu,au,mffttswwsiatr[trhharatlslsuu1uurasaaulisielie]brlntrlnicia.loooohteiteccoatggtssnfwfwhehnwwatdll[r[aaoaaousuns11iisnirnrfsvt]tt]takiaiatadh.edh.ettelbicectiuicgtttntatnslavvooeeeateonnceeeiritrctrasasooiigiaghaabsnsbblCnCbeetttetosstctitilt4d4iacroaceaohae00sHcHscbrrbracchphbthblColsoia5y5reesee44llcoic4sdtOsOododnie0weptrrriHi2r2rshhowses..ottppayFtrxayF5iairrrt4eiyitditdioaiovnngsOgsnelnrrppeuusdootwgt2wsleerrrrex.xsrorafraeeaano,yyottnnfvvi1i1ugaFllrseseeemtntgigpsssshhlglffhdhrre.eoo,ooesuooononTrbrsffburuowmwgmgeuhettofppththetss,th,hml..1eehistbtsbssTTgsshihotuugsehehhohoreelhtntuatfeefemmssoivcscaslltsfitsiwiuoitoiernrtgtgggucurulrlldhshaenaeneuurcccnectstiiectcttmfufu.uutatmahtioiuuclclnrinroefeesTaaiararddlstsolenenlelhsu..omfcftetteoeoTTtootrummefihfieuhhrrsmslirlmelmeenocieoiuuttrtcam,mmmuctuutohowieweonllreteatiaiaaanhaahnnrirniitivltoenoen,,hgscacrerfwfwofhehiiiloilnlwswsmseatuauiiorosittnnnotamntahhmemegengcgvvgriiitiucieeeeneentthnuoassrslsr--..saerf,. According to EFSA experts, the safe intake of the synthetic form of zeaxanthin is 0.75 mg/kg body weight per day, which corresponds to a daily intake of 53 mg for a person weighing 70 kg [4]
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