<i>Tarekat</i> in the Contexts of Indonesian History: Martin van Bruinessen's work on <i>tarekat</i> in Indonesia

Abstract

Tarekat (the Sufi orders) are considered to have played a vital role in the Islamization of Southeast Asia. However, very few reseachers have sought to undertake a determined examination of this topic because of a perceived scarcity of materials. Based on fragmentary information, tarekat seem veiled in such vague notions as: in early times tarekat activities were connected with commerce; tarekat have Indonesian Islam. He discloses the underlying aspects of tarekat and presents several new points relevant to our knowledge of Islam in Indonesia.First, he emphasizes that after the very first introduction of this new religion, the further Islamization of the archipelago was promoted by Indonesians themselves, since at least the 17th century. Indonesians went to Hejaz (Mecca and Medina) where they studied tarekat in theory and in practice, then brought home the fruits of their studies. Indonesian students often preferred Kurdish teachers because they taught tasawwuf (Islamic mysticism) tinted with Indians mysticism. So the influence of Kurdish Islamic culture still remains in Indonesia although none of Kurdish ulama visited that area. Islam was accepted selectively, and Indonesians chose elements which accorded with their mentality and customs.Bruinessen further criticises earlier discussions of Islamization, suggesting that in the very first stage of Islamization, Sufism and its accompanying metaphysical ideas came to Indonesia, but not necessarily organized Sufi religious orders. Futhermore the lack of clear evidence makes him doubt the hypothesis presented by Anthony Johns that tarekat's activities were closely connected with commerce. The conversion of kings and notables to Islam was motivated rather by the desire for access to or the acquisition of supernatural powers and the legitimization of their authority. Such tarekat practices as dzikir, ratib and wirid were expected to make them more powerful than could pre-Islamic mantra or devotions. So some rulers at first restricted their subjects access to tarekat teachings. However, as far as it can be judged from the oldest surviving Islamic manuscripts from Java and Sumatra, fiqh (Islamic jurispruden) was established there by the year 1600, as was tasawwuf. Also, most of the famous Indonesian Sufi authors have written both on fiqh and tasawwuf, indicating that they understood these to be two complementary, not contradictory sides of Islam. Some ulama showed tremendous knowledge of tasawwuf tradition, but tarekat teaching easily changed into saint worship because of the popular desire for relief by the intercession of a saint's miracle-working powers. The religiosity expressed by the populace at large was quite different from that of ulama.Bruinessen sees the 19th century as a turning point in the development of Islam in Indonesia. It was in this very period that social institutions enabling the transmission of such Islamic traditions as pesantren