Abstract
A crucial stage in the interaction between pollinators and plants is the moment of physical contact between them, known as flower inspection, or handling. Floral guides - conspicuous colour markings, or structural features of flower corollas - have been shown to be important in the inspecting behaviour of many insects, particularly in diurnal species. For the nocturnal hawkmoth Manduca sexta tactile input has an important role in flower inspection, but there is no knowledge about the use of visual floral guides in this behaviour. I carried out a series of experiments to first, evaluate the putative role of floral guides during flower inspection and second, to explore how simultaneous tactile and visual guides could influence this behaviour. Results show that visual floral guides affect flower inspection by M. sexta. Moths confine proboscis placement to areas of higher light reflectance regardless of their chromaticity, but do not appear to show movements in any particular direction within these areas. I also recorded inspection times, finding that moths can learn to inspect flowers more efficiently when visual floral guides are available. Additionally, I found that some visual floral guides can affect the body orientation that moths adopt while hovering in front of horizontal models. Finally, when presented with flower models offering both visual and tactile guides, the former influenced proboscis placement, whereas the latter controlled proboscis movements. Results show that innate inspection behaviour is under multimodal sensory control, consistent with other components of the foraging task. Fine scale inspection movements (elicited by diverse floral traits) and the tight adjustment between the morphology of pollinators and flowers appear to be adaptively integrated, facilitating reward assessment and effective pollen transfer.
Highlights
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the use that animals make of multiple sensory modalities for particular tasks (Hebets and Papaj, 2005)
Experiment 1: visual guides A total of 234 moths were flown, of which 178 (76%) probed the flower arrays
When analyzing emptied flowers I found a strong effect of visual guides in the foraging efficiency of naïve moths (ANOVA: F7,140 34.15; P
Summary
There has been increasing interest in the use that animals make of multiple sensory modalities for particular tasks (Hebets and Papaj, 2005). An interesting case is provided by the diverse adaptive responses that nectarivorous animals show to the variety of stimuli offered by flowers. Honeybees utilize different aspects of flower visual signals, using achromatic vision from afar, but recognizing flowers chromatically at close range (Giurfa et al, 1996). Floral odours elicit and maintain visual responses to flowers in many butterflies (Andersson and Dobson, 2003; Tinbergen, 1958), and bumblebees can better discriminate flowers by their olfactory and visual features when these are combined (Gegear, 2005; Odell et al, 1999). Nocturnal moths typically show positive anemotactic responses to floral odours, whereas subsequent visual detection elicits hovering flight and probing when close to the flower (Brantjes, 1978; Raguso and Willis, 2002)
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