Abstract
Imbalanced fertilization without potassium (K) is a worldwide phenomenon in K-rich soils, but its long-term effects on soil quality are poorly understood. Here, in a wheat–fallow system with K-rich soil, soil nutrients and enzyme activities involved in C, N, P, and S cycling and microbial community composition were studied in a 27-year field study with three treatments: no fertilizer (CK); mineral N and P fertilizer (NP); and mineral N, P, and K fertilizer (NPK). Results revealed that long-term NP and NPK fertilization significantly increased soil quality index (SQI) scores and wheat grain yield by mediating soil fertility, which was characterized by a significant decline in soil pH and increase in soil organic carbon (SOC), total N, available N (AN), available P (AP), enzymatic activities, and the abundance of total bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, when compared to CK. NP exhibited significantly higher SOC, AN, AP, microbial biomass C (MBC) and N (MBN), N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, total bacteria, and fungi values compared to NPK; the opposite was true for soil pH and available K. Notably, the differences in wheat grain yield were not statistically significant, while SQI scores in NP (0.86 ± 0.02) were appreciably higher than NPK (0.79 ± 0.03), which was attributed to the differences in MBC, MBN, and microbial communities. Redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that SOC was the key variable affecting enzymatic activities and microbial community composition. The partial least squares path model (PLS-PM) revealed that fertilization-induced changes in SQI were primarily associated with soil microbiological properties (e.g., microbial community composition), while fertilization-driven increases in wheat grain yield were regulated by the soil nutrients. These results suggest that long-term NPK fertilization decreases soil biological quality in K-rich soils, and further studies are required to elucidate the underlying mechanisms by which K affects soil quality in agricultural systems.
Highlights
IntroductionFertilization is the most effective strategy to maintain soil fertility and boost crop production [1]
Fertilization is the most effective strategy to maintain soil fertility and boost crop production [1].Primarily, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the added nutrients, largely as inorganic fertilizers [2]
The present study aims to determine whether soil enzymatic activities and microbial community composition had different responses to balanced (i.e., NPK) and conventional fertilization (i.e., N and P fertilizer (NP)) in K-rich soil, and to develop an soil quality index (SQI) for assessing the current fertilization strategies
Summary
Fertilization is the most effective strategy to maintain soil fertility and boost crop production [1]. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the added nutrients, largely as inorganic fertilizers [2]. Imbalanced fertilization without N, P, or K remains a worldwide phenomenon [3]. Crop uptake of K is almost equal to or greater than N uptake, worldwide fertilizer use remains skewed toward N and P; the K status in agricultural soils is decreasing globally [4]. Numerous studies demonstrate that imbalanced fertilization without K is widely employed globally, in areas with K-rich soils, such as Iran [5], Pakistan [6], India [7], and Northwest China [8].
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