Loneliness and its relation to mental health in the general population: Validation and norm values of a brief measure

Abstract

• Our study is the first confirming measurement invariance across gender and age for one of the most established loneliness scale in a German representative sample. • Women reported overall higher levels of loneliness, apart from the middle age (40-49 years), when men's loneliness peaked. • Loneliness was positively correlated with depressiveness, anxiety, perceived stress, hopelessness, suicidality, and fatigue, and negatively correlated with life satisfaction. • Differentiated norm values are provided for gender and age. Loneliness has been increasingly recognized as an important determinant of mental health. The purposes of this study were to (1) determine the degree of loneliness of women and men across different age groups, (2) explore its association with distress, (3) psychometrically evaluate the Three-Item Loneliness Scale, (4) provide norm values. The Three-Item Loneliness Scale was applied in a representative survey of the German population ( N =2527; 14–95 years). Standardized scales were used measuring distress (depression and anxiety symptoms, perceived stress, hopelessness, suicidal ideation, fatigue, life satisfaction). Factor structure and measurement invariance across gender and age groups were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In the sample, 30% were not lonely at all, 44% were rarely lonely, and 26% reported some degree of loneliness. Loneliness was highest in the oldest (>70 years), followed by the age groups of 14–19 and 50–59 years. Loneliness was higher in women, except for middle age (40–49 years), when men's loneliness peaked. Results indicated scalar invariance across gender and age. Loneliness was associated with diverse forms of distress. Limitations refer to the cross-sectional study design and the use of short screening questionnaire assessing depression and anxiety symptoms. Data indicate varying degrees of loneliness in women and men across the life span. Loneliness has broad negative ramifications with regard to well-being. Findings supports the validity of the scale providing an economic tool for assessing loneliness in population-based surveys. Differentiated norm values are provided for gender and age, which are necessary for comparative analyses.