Locus of Control and Negative Cognitive Styles in Adolescence as Risk Factors for Depression Onset in Young Adulthood: Findings From a Prospective Birth Cohort Study.

Kate Tilling,Paul Moran,Melanie Lewcock,Jean Golding,Alex S F Kwong,Rebecca M Pearson,Daniel Smith,Deborah A Lawlor,Ilaria Costantini

doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.599240

Abstract

Whilst previous observational studies have linked negative thought processes such as an external locus of control and holding negative cognitive styles with depression, the directionality of these associations and the potential role that these factors play in the transition to adulthood and parenthood has not yet been investigated. This study examined the association between locus of control and negative cognitive styles in adolescence and probable depression in young adulthood and whether parenthood moderated these associations. Using a UK prospective population-based birth cohort study: the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), we examined the association between external locus of control and negative cognitive styles in adolescence with odds of depression in 4,301 young adults using logistic regression models unadjusted and adjusted for potential confounding factors. Interaction terms were employed to examine whether parenthood (i.e., having become a parent or not) moderated these associations. Over 20% of young adults in our sample were at or above the clinical threshold indicating probable depression. For each standard deviation (SD) increase in external locus of control in adolescence, there was a 19% (95% CI: 8–32%) higher odds of having probable depression in young adulthood, after adjusting for various confounding factors including baseline mood and different demographic and life events variables. Similarly, for each SD increase in negative cognitive styles in adolescence, there was a 29% (95% CI: 16–44%) higher odds of having probable depression in the adjusted model. We found little evidence that parenthood status moderated the relationship between external locus of control or negative cognitive styles in adolescence and probable depression following adjustment for confounding factors. Effect estimates were comparable when performed in the complete case dataset. These findings suggest that having an external locus of control and holding negative cognitive styles in mid- to late adolescence is associated with an increased likelihood of probable depression in young adulthood.

Highlights

Depression is among the most common mental health disorders, with a lifetime prevalence ranging from 10 to 20% worldwide (Kessler et al, 2005; Lim et al, 2018)
Whilst extensive research has been devoted to the identification of risk factors for depression across different phases of life (Cole and Dendukuri, 2003; AlModallal et al, 2008; Leigh and Milgrom, 2008; Lemstra et al, 2008; Côté et al, 2009; Ripke et al, 2013; Biaggi et al, 2016; Khazanov and Ruscio, 2016; Köhler et al, 2018), few studies have investigated the role of risk factors for depression during an important transition of life, such as from adolescence into young adulthood or during the transition to parenthood (Schwartz et al, 2005; Ghosh, 2017; Sawyer et al, 2018; Kathryn, 2019)
This study used data obtained from participants of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), known as Children of the 90s, which is an ongoing prospective population-based birth cohort study

Summary

Introduction

Depression is among the most common mental health disorders, with a lifetime prevalence ranging from 10 to 20% worldwide (Kessler et al, 2005; Lim et al, 2018). In addition to the potential impact of maternal depression on child outcomes, growing evidence supports the role of common risk factors in the development of ante- and post-partum depression for both women and men along with the detrimental consequences that these mood disruptions have on later parenting practices and on child well-being (Ramchandani and Psychogiou, 2009; Gutierrez-Galve et al, 2019; Kiviruusu et al, 2020). Identifying modifiable risk factors in adolescence which may influence depression onset in early adulthood could assist in the development of preventative strategies to reduce depression risk. Whilst extensive research has been devoted to the identification of risk factors for depression across different phases of life (Cole and Dendukuri, 2003; AlModallal et al, 2008; Leigh and Milgrom, 2008; Lemstra et al, 2008; Côté et al, 2009; Ripke et al, 2013; Biaggi et al, 2016; Khazanov and Ruscio, 2016; Köhler et al, 2018), few studies have investigated the role of risk factors for depression during an important transition of life, such as from adolescence into young adulthood or during the transition to parenthood (Schwartz et al, 2005; Ghosh, 2017; Sawyer et al, 2018; Kathryn, 2019)

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