Abstract
Stress is defined as the state of threatened homeostasis. Normally, the experience of real or perceived stressors leads to physiologic and behavioral adaptive changes, both in the central nervous system and the periphery, that promote survival. The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and the Locus caeruleus/norepinephrine-sympathetic/adrenomedullary nervous system represent the main components of the stress system, via which the brain influences the body during exposure to threatening stimuli. However, the experience of intense or chronic physical and/or emotional stress can lead to excessive and prolonged activation of the stress system or, in a subgroup of individuals, to chronic hypoactivation of this system, with a variety of psychologic and biologic consequences. These stress-related conditions and disorders, such as anxiety disorders, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, chronic inflammation, obesity/metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and many others, represent major causes of increased morbidity and mortality in modern societies.
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