Local habitat characteristics determine butterfly diversity and community structure in a threatened Kihansi gorge forest, Southern Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania

Butterflies are widely recognized as biological indicators of habitat quality due to sensitivity to environmental changes and habitat disturbances. This study aimed to assess butterflies’ species diversity in Magombera Nature Forest Reserve (MNFR), Tanzania as indication of forest recovery from the previous disturbances. Specifically, the study aimed to assess i) current status of butterfly species richness and diversity in MNFR, and (ii) butterfly species abundance, dominance and distribution in MNFR. Data collected through line transects using sweep nets and visual observations across the forest area of 2,623 ha. Species richness computed as a total number of species in a given area, species diversity computed using Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H') and abundance computed as a total count of all individuals. The results indicated that a total of 155 butterfly species belonging to six families and 64 genera recorded in MNFR. Closed forest had high species richness (105) and diversity values (H' = 4.06) and Grassland has least species (46) and diversity values (H' = 3.27). Variation in vegetation composition in MNFR influence higher butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance in closed forest and open woodland than in grassland and riparian vegetation indicating the improvement of forest recovery from prior disturbances after being upgraded to nature reserve in 2018. Therefore, intensive management approaches that currently implemented by the Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS) at MNFR should be maintained to overcome other ecological changes. This will assure proper ecological flow within the forest and between Udzungwa Mountain National Park and Selous Game Reserve.

Abstract: Recent ecological studies suggest that the landscape context of native habitat remnants may significantly influence plant and animal abundance and distribution within those remnants. Other research has revealed a weak link between landscape context and native community composition. To understand the relative importance of local and regional habitat characteristics for grassland butterflies, we assessed butterfly community diversity in four types of grassland habitats surrounded by varying amounts of urban development near Boulder, Colorado ( U.S.A.). We recorded butterfly species abundance and composition in 66 grassland study plots on five sampling dates in 1999 and 2000. Grasslands were of four types: native shortgrass, native mixed grass, native tallgrass, and planted hayfields. Grasslands also varied in quality, determined by the abundance of native versus exotic plant species. We observed highly significant effects of grassland type on butterfly species richness and composition. For example, tallgrass plots supported significantly higher butterfly species richness than shortgrass plots ( p < 0.01). Habitat quality also affected butterfly species richness and composition. Low‐quality plots generally supported fewer species than moderate‐ or high‐quality plots ( p < 0.05). Landscape context—the percentage of urbanization in the surrounding landscape—did not significantly predict butterfly species richness or composition. Our observations suggest that for the grassland butterfly communities in our study, (1) grassland type was the primary determinant of species richness and composition, (2) habitat quality secondarily affected butterfly community diversity, and (3) landscape context did not significantly predict butterfly species composition. Our findings emphasize the importance of maintaining high‐quality grassland habitat to protect native butterfly diversity.

Effects of changes in the riparian forest on the butterfly community (Insecta: Lepidoptera) in Cerrado areas

Aim The Korean peninsula is elongated in shape and is connected to the Asian continent on the north. The peninsular effect – a decline in species density or richness as a function of distance from the mainland base (towards the distal tip) of a peninsula – was evaluated for plants and animals in different peninsulas. The aims of the present study were to describe the pattern of butterfly species diversity and to determine what factors may be responsible for this pattern along the Korean peninsula. The distribution pattern of butterfly species in South Korea before and after the Korean War was also investigated.Location South Korea (34–38° N, 126–129° E).Methods Forty‐three quadrats, each 1/2° latitude by 1/2° longitude, and three data sets – butterfly distribution data from 1938 to 1950, butterfly distribution data from 1976 to 1999, and the combined data – were analysed. The influence of four variables – latitude, longitude, area and maximum altitude – on each quadrat was investigated using multiple regression analysis.Results and conclusion The analyses revealed a marked peninsular effect: there was a significant positive correlation between butterfly species richness and latitude. Additionally, habitat diversity, expressed as maximum altitude, was significantly correlated with butterfly species richness. I conclude that both the geographical orientation and habitat diversity contribute to butterfly species diversity across South Korea. Comparison of ranges between the older and recent data sets suggests that geographical distributions of several species are dramatically reduced in size. These species may be used for future conservation activities in South Korea.

Within the BiodiverCity project in Malmö (Sweden), green structure elements were implemented aiming to support biodiversity and enhancing amenity in denser parts of the city. In this study, bumblebee and butterfly abundances and species richness were studied in 20 green structure elements in three areas in Malmö. The investigated green structure elements consisted of objects established within the BiodiverCity project and other green structure elements in their surroundings (e.g. road verges, lawns and flowerbeds). Observed bumblebee and butterfly abundances and species richness was generally low. In total, 528 bumblebees of eight species were recorded, with 97% of all bumblebees belonging to two species, Bombus lapidarius and B. terrestris/lucorum. A total of 154 butterflies from 10 species were detected, most commonly Pieris species. There were no significant differences in mean individual or species numbers (bumblebees and butterflies) between green structure elements designed to support biodiversity and conventional ones. Bumblebee species richness and abundance were positively correlated with mean cover of flowering vegetation and mean number of flowering plant species. Butterfly species richness and abundance were positively correlated with mean number of flowering plant species and size of the green structure. Observations of flower visits showed that the two groups of insects had different preferences. The results of this study show that enhancing bumblebee and butterfly diversity and abundances in densely built city areas can be challenging. To support bumblebees and butterflies more successfully, the habitat requirements of these insect groups need to be better considered from the beginning in the design of green structure elements.

The presence of butterflies can be found in several types of habitats and can be used as an indicator of environmental conditions. Geologically, the Nglanggeran Ancient Volcano is unique and has high scientific value. It is necessary to update the butterfly diversity data to determine the diversity of butterflies at Nglanggeran Ancient Volcano. The purpose of this study was to determine the diversity, richness, evenness, and dominance of butterfly species at Nglanggeran Ancient Volcano. The exploration method was carried out to obtain data for three repetitions. There were 51 butterfly species with a total of 584 individuals, consisting of Nymphalidae (54.55%), Papilionidae (21.82%), Pieridae (20.00%) and Lycaenidae (3.64%). The index value of butterfly species diversity at Nglanggeran Ancient Volcano (2.97) was medium. The species evenness index (0.83) indicated that the species was relatively stable and evenly distributed. The richness of butterfly species was high, i.e. 6.70, suggesting that the current habitat was suitable for the life of the butterflies. The dominance index value was low, i.e. 0.12, indicating that there was no domination of certain species. The abundant species were Eurema sp. (23.12%), Ideopsis juventa (7.02%), and Catopsilia pomona (6.85%).

Roads may have an important negative effect on animal dispersal rate and mortality and thus the functioning of local populations. However, road verges may be surrogate habitats for invertebrates. This creates a conservation dilemma around the impact of roads on invertebrates. Further, the effect of roads on invertebrates is much less understood than that on vertebrates. We studied the effect of roads on butterflies by surveying abundance, species richness and composition, and mortality in ten grassland patches along high-traffic roads (∼50–100 vehicles per hour) and ten reference grassland patches next to unpaved roads with very little traffic (<1 vehicle per day) in southern Poland. Five 200-m transects parallel to the road were established in every grassland patch: at a road verge, 25 m from the verge, in the patch interior, and 25 m from the boundary between the grassland and field and at the grassland-arable field boundary. Moreover, one 200-m transect located on a road was established to collect roadkilled butterflies. The butterfly species richness but not abundance was slightly higher in grassland patches adjacent to roads than in reference grassland patches. Butterfly species composition in grasslands adjacent to roads differed from that in the reference patches. Proximity of a road increased variability in butterfly abundances within grassland patches. Grassland patches bordering roads had higher butterfly abundance and variation in species composition in some parts of the grassland patch than in other parts. These effects were not found in reference grassland patches, where butterfly species and abundance were more homogenously distributed in a patch. Plant species composition did not explain butterfly species. However, variance partitioning revealed that the presence of a road explained the highest proportion of variation in butterfly species composition, followed by plant species richness and abundance in grassland patches. Road mortality was low, and the number of roadkilled butterflies was less than 5% of that of all live butterflies. Nevertheless, the number and species composition of roadkilled butterflies were well explained by the butterfly communities living in road verges but not by total butterfly community structure in grassland patches. This study is the first to show that butterfly assemblages are altered by roads. These results indicate that: (1) grassland patches located near roads are at least as good habitats for butterflies as reference grassland patches are, (2) roads create a gradient of local environmental conditions that increases variation in the abundance of certain species and perhaps increases total species richness in grassland patches located along roads, and (3) the impact of roads on butterflies is at least partially independent of the effect of plants on butterflies. Furthermore, (4) the direct impact of road mortality is probably spatially limited to butterflies living in close proximity to roads.

Case-specific monitoring of butterflies to determine potential effects of transgenic Bt-maize in Switzerland

Butterfly species can be sensitive to ecosystem disturbance and, therefore, suitable to be used as indicators of habitat quality. We determined species richness and diversity of butterfly species along five tourist trails in the northeast region of Portugal. These trails were in different landscape structures, varying from urban areas to areas extensively managed for agriculture (i.e., vineyards, meadows) to natural areas (i.e., grasslands, rivers, forests). A total of 522 butterflies representing 45 species belonging to 34 genera and 5 families of Lepidoptera were recorded. Of the taxonomic families represented in the survey, the Nymphalidae were most numerous (362 specimens, 22 species) followed by Pieridae (86 specimens, 11 species) and Lycaenidae (58 specimens, 8 species). Four species have a conservation status, an indicator of the risk of extinction they face at present or in the near future [Euphydryas aurinia (Rottemburg, 1775), Phengaris alcon (Denis &amp; Schiffermüller, 1775), Hipparchia semele (L., 1758) and Melanargia lachesis (Hübner, 1790)], and these represent 6.9% of the total species identified. Among the five trails, diversity parameters varied with high values of species richness and diversity, low dominance of species, and moderate evenness of distribution. Additionally, butterfly species comparison among the trails revealed that Alvão and Vale do Corgo trails have most of the species in common, especially from Pieridae and Nymphalidae, while the Marão trail has more species associated exclusively to this trail. These results were also supported by hierarchical clustering performed with an average linkage aggregation method using Jaccard distance and by comparison between proportions of butterflies among trails within each family.

Kitahara and Fujii, in 1994, analyzed the butterfly communities along a gradient of human disturbance by applying the generalist/specialist concept. Butterfly species were classified into generalist or specialist species based on their voltinism (seasonal time dimension) and potential larval resource breadth (food dimension). The community structure and species composition showed the systematic changes along the gradient. To verify the generality of those trends, we monitored five grassland butterfly communities with varying degrees of human disturbance twice a month during 1985 by the line transect method at the foot of Mt. Fuji, central Japan, and analyzed their structure in a manner similar to that employed by Kitahara and Fujii. Most results were consistent with the patterns recognized by Kitahara and Fujii. The route (community) order based on increasing human disturbance was strongly and negatively correlated with butterfly species richness but with neither butterfly species diversity (H′) nor evenness (J′). Also, the degree of human disturbance was significantly and negatively correlated with the number of specialist species, but not with that of generalists, in a community. Butterfly species richness was more strongly correlated with the number of specialist species than with that of generalists. Our analyses also showed that the generalist species were distributed more widely over the communities than were the specialists. However, in contrast to the trend revealed by Kitahara and Fujii, there was no significant difference in the population densities and in the spatial population variability between the two species groups. As a whole, our analyses confirmed the consistency of most community patterns detected by Kitahara and Fujii. The causes of the inconsistencies in some patterns were thought to be mainly the present habitat conditions with a relatively short growing season at high altitudes.

Butterflies are widely studied due to their key ecosystem functions. For this reason, they are used in ecosystem assessment, formulating conservation plans and in raising the environmental awareness. Quantification of different factors affecting diversity of butterflies is important for their effective conservation. In this study, we investigated abiotic and biotic factors affecting species richness and community composition of butterflies along an elevational gradient in Manang region, central Nepal. We also tested if butterfly species follow the Bergmann’s rule. A total of 57 butterfly species belonging to 39 genera and 8 families were recorded in the study area. Out of a total of 127 plant species in identified in the study region, only 67 plant species were visited by butterflies as nectar sources. Species richness of butterflies increased with increasing elevation. Species richness was significantly higher in places with shrubs compared to other places and also in autumn than in summer. Species richness of butterflies also depended on composition of plant species occurring at the localities. Butterfly species composition varied among sampling localities. It was also determined by habitat type, elevation, sampling time, plant species and interactions of elevation × time. The relationship between butterfly size and elevation was in the opposite direction than expected according to the Bergmann’s rule. In conclusion, protection of butterfly diversity can only be achieved by protecting different habitats across the diverse physiography of the region and different plant species, in particular herbs and shrubs. Our results do not support the Bergmann’s rule for butterflies along an elevational gradient in our region.

ABSTRACTAim Broad‐scale spatial variation in species richness relates to climate and physical heterogeneity but human activities may be changing these patterns. We test whether climate and heterogeneity predict butterfly species richness regionally and across Canada and whether these relationships change in areas of human activity.Location Canada.Methods We modelled the ranges of 102 butterfly species using genetic algorithms for rule‐set production (GARP). We then measured butterfly species richness and potentially important aspects of human activity and the natural environment. These were included in a series of statistical models to determine which factors are likely to affect butterfly species richness in Canada. We considered patterns across Canada, within predominantly natural areas, human‐dominated areas and particular ecozones. We examined independent observations of butterfly species currently listed under Canada's endangered species legislation to test whether these were consistent with findings from statistical models.Results Growing season temperature is the main determinant of butterfly species richness across Canada, with substantial contributions from habitat heterogeneity (measured using elevation). Only in the driest areas does precipitation emerge as a leading predictor of richness. The slope of relationships between all of these variables and butterfly species richness becomes shallower in human‐dominated areas, but butterfly richness is still highest there. Insecticide applications, habitat loss and road networks reduce butterfly richness in human‐dominated areas, but these effects are relatively small. All of Canada's at‐risk butterfly species are located in these human‐dominated areas.Main conclusions Temperature affects butterfly species richness to a greater extent than habitat heterogeneity at fine spatial scales and is generally far more important than precipitation, supporting both the species richness–energy and habitat heterogeneity hypotheses. Human activities, especially in southern Canada, appear to cause surprisingly consistent trends in biotic homogenization across this region, perhaps through range expansion of common species and loss of range‐restricted species.

Understanding and identifying butterfly species in various land uses serves a crucial eco-logical function in protecting biodiversity and improving environmental policy decisions. However, such a study on the diversity of butterflies from different land use types in and around Chebera Churchura Na-tional Park, southwestern Ethiopia, is extremely lacking. Thus, the present study aimed to quantify the species richness and abundance of butterflies in the Chebera Churchura National Park and its surroundings, which are prioritized for their conservation. Data was collected from January 2021 to June 2021 following the line transect method in the three habitat types using a standard insect net. In total, 2118 individuals representing 79 species and 38 genera belonging to five families were recorded. The Nymphalidae were the most dominant butterfly family, accounting for 45 species (57%) of the total butterflies observed, while the Heaspariidae contributed the least. Among the 79 species, 9 were very common, 32 were common, 37 were rare, and 1 was very rare. Based on butterfly species richness and composition, riverine forest had the greatest diversity and abundance with 65 species and 1028 individuals, and the least species composition was recorded in mosaic habitat with 26 species and 350 individuals, and the difference in diversity was significant. The study region was generally found to be rich in the diversity and abundance of butterflies in all three forms of land use. However, the study area is currently becoming an investment hub, and many road development projects are being planned. Ongoing human activities will devastate and harm the richness, abundance, and diversity of butterfly species. As a result, such human-induced activities need to be carefully studied to protect biodiversity.

This study compares the variation of richness, abundance and diversity of butterfly species along an atmospheric pollution gradient and during different seasons in the Monterrey Metropolitan Area, Mexico. Likewise, we analyse the influence of environmental variables on the abundance and richness of butterfly species and quantify the indicator species for each atmospheric pollution category. Based on spatial analysis of the main atmospheric pollutants and the vegetation cover conditions, four permanent sampling sites were delimited. The sampling was carried out monthly in each of the sites using aerial entomological nets and ten Van Someren-Rydon traps during May 2018 to April 2019. A total of 8,570 specimens belonging to six families and 209 species were collected. Both species richness and abundance were significantly different between all sites, except for the comparison between the moderate contamination site and the high contamination site; diversity decreased significantly with increasing levels of contamination. The seasonality effect was absent on species richness; however, for species abundance the differences between dry season and rainy season were significant in each site excepting the moderate contamination site. Regarding diversity, the seasonal effect showed different distribution patterns according to each order. Relative humidity, vegetation cover and three pollution variables were highly correlated with both abundance and species richness. From the total number of species found, only 47 had a significant indicator value. This study constitutes the first faunistic contribution of butterflies as indicators of the environmental quality of urban areas in Mexico, which will help in the development of strategies for the management, planning and conservation of urban biodiversity.

Butterfly and plant species richness were recorded from 1997 to 2000 on 2 and 6 m grass margins created at three farms in Essex which had entered the Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS) in October 1996. On both the 2 and 6 m margins there was a significant relationship between the length of hedgerow and the number of plant species observed on the margins, but the seed mixtures used may not have been ideal and natural regeneration should not have been used on the clay soils of Essex. Butterfly species richness was significantly greater on the 2 m margins than on the control sections, and was greater when a higher number of grass species were included in the original seed mixture. Plant species richness was greater on the 6 m margins when established by natural regeneration. CSS grass margins could be improved as butterfly habitats if they are linked to existing habitats such as hedgerows, are sown with a better range of native grasses and herbs and are managed in a way more conducive to wildlife. These changes to the policy of establishment of CSS margins could help combat habitat loss and fragmentation within the countryside.