Abstract
Abstract Citizenship constitutes a mechanism of social closure, securing opening toward the members and closing against aliens. Over the past decades, political discourses, practices, and legislation have reflected not only changing understandings of national citizenship but also the emergence of citizenship “below” on the local and regional level and “above” on the trans‐ and supranational level, in the guise of dual citizenship and European Union citizenship. These forms of citizenship carry the potential to alleviate the exclusions produced by national citizenship.
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