Abstract
Growing urban populations in Sub-Saharan Africa are increasing demand for charcoal. This paper presents a detailed case study of three communities supplying charcoal to Zomba, a medium-sized city in Southern Malawi. Using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to structure our analysis, we examine individuals' motivations for producing charcoal, assess the seasonality of charcoal production, how livelihood outcomes vary between men and women, and identify sources of vulnerability for charcoal producer livelihoods. Drawing on data from four focus group exercises in each community and a total of 42 semi-structured interviews, we identify direct (e.g. financial) and indirect (e.g. strengthening of social networks, improved access to goods and services, opportunities for livelihood diversification) benefits that contribute to reducing producers' vulnerability to financial insecurity and improve their livelihoods. Irrespective of the benefits obtained and the actions (e.g. prioritising charcoal production over farming) of producers, participants did not perceive charcoal production as a desirable activity because the work was illegal, stigmatised hard and dangerous. Producers' primary motivations for engaging in production were to provide income to meet one-off purchases of expensive items, respond to an income shock, or to meet recurrent seasonal needs. Under certain conditions women were more dependent on income from charcoal production than men, as they had fewer alternative income generating options available to them. There was no reported management of charcoal resources in the study area, therefore the environmental sustainability of charcoal production and its associated benefits are uncertain. Malawi's current de facto charcoal ban leads to enforcement activities that exacerbate livelihood risks and increase producers' vulnerability to income insecurity.
Highlights
Forests provide a range of products and services, directly contributing to the livelihoods of an estimated 800 million people globally, living in or near tropical forests and savannahs (Chomitz et al, 2007; Naughton-Treves et al, 2007)
An in-depth analysis of charcoal producers' livelihoods presented in this study has revealed clear direct and indirect benefits that contribute to reducing producers' vulnerability to income insecurity and poverty, and improve their livelihoods
This study generates new insights into gendered production practises, highlighting that women were more dependent on income from charcoal production than men, as they had fewer alternative income generating options available to them
Summary
Forests provide a range of products and services, directly contributing to the livelihoods of an estimated 800 million people globally, living in or near tropical forests and savannahs (Chomitz et al, 2007; Naughton-Treves et al, 2007). Through the provision of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as food, fodder, medicine, housing materials and fuel, forests contribute to livelihoods by providing access to basic materials and income generation (Ambrose-Oji, 2004; Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004; Sunderlin et al, 2005; Schreckenberg et al, 2006; Heubach et al, 2011; Shackleton et al, 2011). Its production and trade will become an important source of income for an estimated 12 million people by 2030 (Mwampamba et al, 2013) yet there are large research gaps in the charcoal literature, which has led to a lack of evidence-based decision-making (ICRAF, 2015). The charcoal markets of smaller cities are severely under-researched and there is no evidence to suggest that their value chains, participants or governance structures are comparable to larger cities (Smith et al, 2015)
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