Abstract
Growth factors used for tissue regeneration applications often do not perform well in later stages of clinical trials, betraying their early promise. One example is the large initial release of bone morphogenic protein (BMP)-2 from collagen powder/sponges over 21 days that is nonphysiological. A slower- and sustained-release profile may reduce the incidence of adverse effects such as heterotopic ossification, and more physiological recovery is highly desirable. Fracture healing involves different stages, involvement of BMP and vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), and interaction between blood vessels and bone cells.
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