Linguistic racism in inter-culture service encounter

An estimated 67.3 million people are nonnative English speakers in the US. Research has shown that nonnative English speakers are often perceived to be less competent in communication, less intelligent, and less reliable in English-speaking environments, regardless of their actual capability. Given that English is a common tool for business communication, nonnative English speaker identity is particularly salient in the workplace. As a result, nonnative English speakers have been shown to be less likely to be hired or promoted to managerial positions and more likely to fail to receive funding for their business due to the stigma. Notably, even without actual discrimination, they tend to be afraid of stigmatization and unfair judgements based on their nonnative English speaker identity. Using a theoretical lens of stereotype threat, this paper examined how nonnative English speakers experience the stigma at work and how it affects their daily life. To this end, an experience sampling study of 86 full-time working nonnative English speakers in the US across 10 consecutive workdays was conducted. The results suggest that nonnative English speakers’ daily experience of stereotype threat likely reduces their well-being, but not job performance. The findings help a better understanding of how stereotype threat plays a role in the workplace. Keywords: Nonnative speaker stigma, stereotype threat; resource depletion, experience sampling methods

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the experiences of nonnative speakers in conflictual situations with native speakers in the workplace. In three studies, the authors examine whether nonnative speakers experience stereotype threat in workplace conflict situations with native speakers, whether stereotype threat is associated with certain conflict managing behaviors (e.g. yielding and avoiding) and the relationship between stereotype threat, satisfaction with conflict outcomes and processes, and objective conflict outcomes.Design/methodology/approachStudies 1 and 2 use critical incident recall methodology to examine nonnative speakers’ conflict behaviors and satisfaction with conflict outcomes. In Study 3, data were collected from a face-to-face simulation with a random-assignment design.FindingsFindings suggest that nonnative speakers indeed experience heightened stereotype threat when interacting with native speakers in conflict situations and the experience of stereotype threat leads to less satisfaction with conflict outcomes, perceptions of goal attainment, as well as worse objective conflict outcomes.Originality/valueThe current study is one of the first studies to document the effects of accent stereotype threat on conflict behaviors and outcomes. More broadly, it contributes to the conflict studies literature by offering new insight into the effects and implications of stereotype threat on workplace conflict behaviors and outcomes.

Linguistic racism shapes the psychological antecedents of code switching and its consequences for Black people and other people of color. We highlight mentalizing as an antecedent of code switching. We posit that stereotype threat arises in contexts where racism is salient, prompting scrutiny of others' mental states (i.e., mentalizing) when making choices about linguistic self-presentation. Additionally, we posit that sustained appraisals of stereotype threat add cognitive load and reinforce self-protective code switching. We highlight potential consequences of linguistic racism for Black people and other people of color, including reduced opportunities for authentic self-presentation, increased emotional effort, and stress. Finally, we outline paths forward for research and practice: (1) recognizing the heterogeneity of language and thereby reducing linguistic racism, (2) implementing changes that promote racially affirming environments that reduce demands for self-protective code switching, and (3) adapting and creating scalable psychometric tools to measure linguistic choices and linguistic racism.

An estimated 67.3 million people are nonnative English speakers in the U.S. Research has shown that nonnative English speakers are often perceived to be less competent in communication, less intelligent, and less reliable in English-speaking environments, regardless of their actual capability. Given that English is a common tool for business communication, the nonnative English speaker stigma is likely to be particularly salient in the workplace. For example, empirical research evidence has shown that nonnative English speakers are less likely to be hired or promoted to managerial positions and are more likely to fail to receive funding for their business due to the stigma. More importantly, even without actual discrimination, nonnative English speakers tend to be afraid of stigmatization and unfair judgements based on their nonnative English speaker identity. Scholars have shown that being in a situation where one is afraid of stigmatization leads to the experience of stereotype threat - a situational threat that arises when stigmatized individuals are afraid of being seen through a lens of negative stereotypes attached to their identity. Since Steele and Aronson’s (1995) seminal work, numerous lab experiments have examined how stereotype threat hinders stigmatized individuals’ immediate task performance. However, the effects of stereotype threat in organizational settings are still relatively understudied and thus, not well understood. As such, the primary purpose of the current study is to explore how nonnative English speakers’ daily experience of stereotype threat at work is directly and indirectly related to their job performance and psychological well-being. To achieve this goal, an experience sampling study of 86 full-time working nonnative English speakers in the U.S. across 10 consecutive workdays was conducted. Results of the current study suggest that the effect of stereotype threat in organizational settings may be different from what the accumulated evidence suggests in the current literature on stereotype threat. Given that stereotype threat literature is primarily built on lab experiments focusing on its effect on task performance, the current research’s daily-level examination in a non-experimental setting contributes to capturing a more precise effect of stereotype threat and a better understanding of the phenomenon.

The trend towards globalization increases the likelihood that organizations will employ persons with nonnative accents. Many people with nonnative accents are aware that they sound different, but for the most part, their experiences have been largely ignored in organizational research. Our research begins to rectify this omission by examining how nonnative speakers think, act and perceive the results of, conflict situations. We investigate the experiences of nonnative speakers in three studies, in which we examine 1) whether nonnative speakers experience stereotype threat in workplace conflict situations with native speakers, 2) whether stereotype threat is associated with certain conflict managing behaviors (e.g. yielding and avoiding), and 3) the relationship between stereotype threat, satisfaction with conflict outcomes and processes, and objective conflict outcomes. Findings suggest that nonnative speakers experience stereotype threat when interacting with native speakers in conflict situations and the experience of stereotype threat can lead to more passive conflict behaviors. Stereotype threat was also associated with less satisfaction with conflict outcomes and goal-attainment as well as lower objective conflict outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications of these results as well as directions for future research are discussed.

Skin conductance levels (SCLs) of native and non-native English speakers were measured during emotional and taboo Stroop tasks. Significantly slower response times to negative and taboo words when compared to neutral words were found in both groups of participants, but positive words were not found to differ significantly from neutral words. No differences between native and non-native speakers in their behavioural responses were present: the pattern of interference from negative and taboo words was found to be identical in L1 and L2. SCLs, however, did reveal differences between the native and non-native participants: native English speakers responded with significantly higher SCLs to negative and taboo words when compared with neutral and positive words. This difference was not observed in non-native speakers, although there was a trend for taboo words to elicit greater SCLs than positive words. This suggests that, although the two groups responded in a very similar manner on a behavioural level, the level of arousal produced by the negative and taboo words for native English speakers was greater than that for non-native speakers.

PurposeWhile language is vital for a successful service exchange, it can also become a source of vulnerability if one party is a non-native speaker in an inter-culture service encounter (ICSE). Hence, the purpose of this study is to understand the relationship between language-related stigma that non-native customers perceive in an ICSE and the associated psychological and behavioral responses.Design/methodology/approachA survey-based research method and an experimental study was used to collect data from non-native speakers in the USA with English as their second language. Structural equation modeling procedure was used to test the hypothesized relationships.FindingsThe findings suggest that the customers who perceive language-related stigmatization in an ICSE context experience intergroup anxiety and lack of social belonging. In turn, intergroup anxiety influences their interaction comfort with the service provider. In the end, these experiences shape their future buying behavior, i.e. they tend to avoid direct interactions with the servers and prefer smart services.Research limitations/implicationsFuture research is needed to explore the focal phenomenon in other service contexts and cultures to enrich knowledge on language vulnerabilities.Practical implicationsThe study highlights the importance of technology, not just from a convenience perspective, but also as an accommodation mechanism for linguistically vulnerable customers.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to empirically examine the language-related stigmatization and associated psychological and behavioral responses from the non-native customers’ perspective in a services exchange setting.

Discrimination is a problem for both minority groups and the societies in which they live. Perceived group discrimination reflects the direct experiences of immigrants but is also an indicator of reception context and social cohesion in the host country. This paper examines perceptions of group discrimination among recently migrated Polish immigrants to four Western European countries, and specifically focuses on changes over time in these individual perceptions, using a new longitudinal survey of immigrants. Are there cross-national differences in (changes in) perceived group discrimination, and how is discrimination related to exposure to and experiences in the host country? By employing a panel design we find that perceived discrimination is higher among Polish migrants in the Netherlands in Wave 1 than in the other three countries; perceptions of discrimination also increase more there between waves of the survey, as well as in the UK. Perceptions of group discrimination are related to some aspects of exposure to the host country, but most strongly associated with negative experiences in the host country. Differences in country contexts – attitudinal climate and national discourses – seem to play a role in understanding perceived group discrimination among new Polish immigrants in Western Europe.

There is evidence that Black patients may experience stereotype threat--apprehension about being negatively stereotyped--in healthcare settings, which might adversely affect their behavior in clinical encounters. Recent studies conducted outside of healthcare have shown that a brief self-affirmation intervention, in which individuals are asked to focus on and affirm their valued characteristics and sources of personal pride, can reduce the negative effects of stereotype threat on academic performance and on interpersonal communication. This randomised controlled trial examined whether a self-affirmation (SA) intervention would decrease the negative effects of stereotype threat (negative mood, lower state self-esteem, greater perceptions of racial discrimination) and increase communication self-efficacy among Black primary care patients. Self-affirmation was induced by having patients complete a 32-item values affirmation questionnaire. Patients in the SA condition had lower levels of performance self-esteem and social self-esteem than patients in the control. There were no differences between the SA and the control groups on negative mood, communication self-efficacy, and perceptions of discrimination. Our SA intervention lowered state self-esteem among Black patients. Future research is needed to determine the type of SA task that is most effective for this population.

Exercise-based videogames, or exergames, provide a promising and novel way to improve exercise attitudes and behavior among overweight children. These digital interventions often allow for customizations of player characters and weave in narratives and goals. Theoretically, the presence of visual identity cues (e.g., avatars) and social category cues (e.g., stereotypes) within the virtual gaming environment are likely to motivate a player's exercise attitudes and behavior in various ways. This study examined the effects of both visual cues (via the Proteus effect) and social cues (via stereotype threat) on overweight children's exercise attitudes and game performance in a virtual running game. A 2 (avatar body size: Normal versus overweight)×2 (stereotype threat: Present versus absent) factorial design experiment was conducted with 140 overweight children between 9 to 12 years of age. Dependent variables measured were participants' exercise attitudes, exercise motivation, exercise motivation with regard to the Nintendo(®) (Kyoto, Japan) Wii™, and their in-game performance. Multivariate analysis of covariance tests showed that overweight children assigned to avatars of normal body size scored significantly better on all four variables compared with those assigned to avatars of large body size, whereas overweight children assigned to a stereotype threat absent condition scored significantly better on three of the four variables compared with those assigned to a stereotype threat present condition. Using avatars with normal body size and not being subjected to stereotypical messages has the potential to increase the effectiveness of exergames among overweight children. Exergame developers should consider designing avatars that are slim and toned and set "weight neutral" goals and challenges. These may provide more motivation and yield greater attitudinal and behavioral changes among overweight children.

In this chapter, we explore brain and body mechanisms that link the experience of stereotype threat to changes in cognitive and behavioral performance. We begin by identifying a model of causal sequences of stereotype threat: psychological states associated with stereotype threat, neurobiological responses triggered by these psychological states, and cognitive and behavioral outcomes that are influenced by the neurobiological states. We explore this theoretical path analysis throughout the chapter, focusing on two broad psychological states often implicated in stereotype-threat processes: stress arousal and vigilance. To explore stress arousal as an explanation for stereotype threat performance effects, we highlight the biology underlying stress systems, stress typologies, and temporal trajectories of stress responses. We highlight how these neurobiological changes can influence cognitive and behavioral outcomes, and review existing stereotype threat research that explores these neurobiological responses. We then examine the broad category of vigilance in stereotype threat processes, and again highlight extant stereotype threat literature exploring neurobiological changes associated with vigilance. The intent of the chapter is to provide a neurobiological framework to assist stereotype threat researchers in identifying possible brain and body mechanisms that may be directly or indirectly implicated in performance changes engendered by stereotype threat.

The normative institutional practices of White, native English speakers have been explored in detail by CRT scholars in US academia, and these practices perpetuate a system which maintains White privilege to the detriment and systemic exclusion of the Other. Consequently, students of colour and non-native English speakers are inclined to face a number of forms of inequality, inequity, discrimination and harassment based on Whiteness and nativism including English speaker centrism, and this eventually serves to reproduce Whiteness and White racial domination. To better understand this institutional practices based on Whiteness in US academia, this paper explores how structural inequity based on linguistic racism and White privilege is reproduced by patterns in everyday institutional practice in US academia, and how intersectional structural inequity influences non-White, non-native speakers of American English such as international students from Asia by interviewing an Asian international ELL Ph.D. student, and exploring his counterstory in detail.

Social media has been increasingly used by multinational enterprises (MNEs) to diffuse CSR initiatives due to its timeliness, extensive coverage, and high public engagement. The effectiveness of CSR communications is crucial for MNEs in establishing legitimacy and improving business performance in host countries, especially when they are operating in a weak institutional context. However, studies on the effectiveness of MNEs’ utilization of social media in their host countries are surprisingly scant. Most research on CSR communication via social media fails to distinguish between different stakeholder groups and simply treat them as the “general public”. In addition, MNEs face diverse stakeholders’ expectations shaped by the institutional complexities when operating across nations; yet, extant literature on this topic is either based on one single Western country or studying the difference between two distinct countries in delivering CSR messages. Little attention is paid to the effectiveness of different CSR communication intensity levels and how CSR communication intensity should differ across nations based on both the formal institutions (such as political and economic freedom) and the informal institutions (such as culture). Particularly, it is unclear whether higher CSR communication intensity on social media in a host country will lead to an MNE’s higher reputation, a critical dimension that reflects the effectiveness of all CSR efforts. On one hand, previous research found that there is a positive relationship between CSR intensity and reputation. If so, higher communication intensity on social media in a host country will increase an MNE’s reputation in that location. On the other hand, intensive CSR communications may put an MNE’s reputation at risk, given that the two-way interactions on social media may invite public engagement and raise unexpected public criticism. As an initial attempt to fill these gaps in the extant literature, we develop testable propositions by drawing on Institutional Theory and Stakeholder Salience Theory. Although multiple types of stakeholders exist, we primarily discuss consumers as the target audience because they are the major participants on social media and directly involved in an MNE’s production and consumption activities. We propose that the power of consumers in host countries, along with the institutional distance between the home and the host country, is a critical factor when MNEs consider whether and to what extent they communicate CSR on social media. Specifically, the greater the institutional distance between the home country and host country and the greater the power of consumers in the host country, the higher the CSR communication intensity through social media should be in the host country. Contingent on CSR communication fit, communication intensity through social media may also allow the MNEs to gain a more favorable reputation in the host country.

We explored the effects of language-based stigma on the relationship between native and nonnative speakers. In two studies, we found that stigmatized nonnative speakers experienced more negative interpersonal interactions, higher levels of intergroup threat, and reduced performance on an English test compared with nonnative speakers who did not experience stigma. These effects were mediated by anxiety and moderated by prevention-related goals. Furthermore, native speakers perceived stigmatized (vs. not-stigmatized) speakers’ accents as stronger and their commitment to living in the host country as weaker. Our findings suggest that experiencing language-based stigma can (a) incite a stereotype threat response from nonnative speakers, and (b) damage their relationship with native speakers on an interpersonal and intergroup level.

Educational and occupational data suggest that second-generation West Indian immigrants have less favorable outcomes than their first-generation counterparts, who are typically shown to outperform comparison groups of African Americans. In two studies, we explore the social psychological process of stereotype threat as it differentially affects the performance of first-and second-generation West Indian students. An initial questionnaire study of 270 West Indian students provided data on perceived favorability of African American and West Indian stereotypes, ethnic identification, and perceptions of discrimination. An experimental study of stereotype threat showed a significant interaction between generation and stereotype threat condition: first-and second-generation West Indian students performed equally in neutral conditions, but differed significantly when stereotype threat was present. While first-generation students increased their performance in the threat condition, second-generation students showed the performance decrements characteristic of African American students. Effects due to the race of the experimenter were also found, suggesting the importance of context in testing situations. Overall, the findings argue for the relevance of psychological processes in understanding broader demographic patterns of immigration and change.