Abstract

Facing global warming and recent bans on the use of diesel in vehicles, there is a growing need to develop vehicles powered by renewable energy sources to mitigate greenhouse gas and pollutant emissions. Among the various forms of non-fossil energy for vehicles, hydrogen fuel is emerging as a promising way to combat global warming. To date, most studies on vehicle carbon emissions have focused on diesel and electric vehicles (EVs). Emission assessment methodologies are usually developed for fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) which are non-durable household goods such as packaged foods, beverages, and toiletries instead of vehicle products. There is an increase in the number of articles addressing the product carbon footprint (PCF) of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the recent years, while relatively little research focuses on both vehicle PCF and fuel cycle. Zero-emission vehicles initiative has also brought the importance of investigating the emission throughout the fuel cycle of hydrogen fuel cell and its environmental impact. To address these gaps, this study uses the life-cycle assessment (LCA) process of GREET (greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation) to compare the PCF of an EV (Tesla Model 3) and a hydrogen fuel cell car (Toyota MIRAI). According to the GREET results, the fuel cycle contributes significantly to the PCF of both vehicles. The findings also reveal the need for greater transparency in the disclosure of relevant information on the PCF methodology adopted by vehicle manufacturers to enable comparison of their vehicles’ emissions. Future work will include examining the best practices of PCF reporting for vehicles powered by renewable energy sources as well as examining the carbon footprints of hydrogen production technologies based on different methodologies.

Highlights

  • Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP21)

  • World Economic Forum report [24] in January 2020 forecasted that emissions from lastmile deliveries will increase by more than 30% in 10 years–up to 25 million tonnes per year–as the number of urban dwellers and online shoppers grows, after the COVID-19 pandemic, which is shifting a significant part of the retail business online as people stay at home

  • The results showed that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) only slightly outperformed conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs)

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Summary

Introduction

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP21). Several countries have enacted policies to ban new petrol and diesel cars by 2030 or 2040 [1,2,3]. In achieving zero emission low-carbon transport and banning of new petrol and diesel cars, analysis on vehicular carbon emissions is a growing research focus, in particular at a product level. In assessing the total carbon footprint of a vehicle, the availability of information is a critical aspect potentially hampering the completeness of emission inventory. In addition to the cradle-to-gate processes of metal working and forming, painting and coating, assembly and testing, and shipping and distribution, other subsequent processes— Such as consumer usage, after-sales services, repair and maintenance, and disposal and recycling—should be considered, especially when evaluating the cradle-to-grave carbon emission activities of a vehicle. This paper reviews the carbon footprint assessment and LCA procedures of two types of vehicle product: EVs and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs).

Emerging Use of Hydrogen Fuel Cell and Battery Electric Vehicles
Carbon Footprint
The GREET Model
Functional Comparison
Defining Scope and Goal of Analysis
Findings
Conclusions
Full Text
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