Leverage, diplomacy, and African lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and intersex rights: Malawi and Zambia compared

Abstract

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and intersex (LGBTI) rights have become central to the Western human rights (HR) agenda in Africa. Nevertheless, diplomatic responses to violations of LGBTI rights have appeared ad hoc and inconsistent. We explore the tools used for the promotion of LGBTI rights in Africa and theorize about the costs involved in promoting such rights in a resistant environment. We argue that engaging publicly in the promotion of LGBTI rights comes with significant political costs for Western donors. Consequently, donors avoid public criticism in cases in which diplomatic and economic leverage are low and pressure is unlikely to yield significant change in levels of repression. Our theoretical argument is supported by a comparative case study of donor involvement on issues of LGBTI rights in Malawi and Zambia. Our findings contribute to a burgeoning literature on the place of LGBTI rights promotion on the international HR agenda and adds to the understanding of the selective promotion of HR.