Abstract
During the last years, an increasing number of utilities in several European countries, e.g., Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden, have discovered that their business can go beyond selling kilowatt-hours of electricity or gas. In a recent survey by VDEW, the association of German electric utilities, around 80 utilities from all levels (there are nine connected grid companies generating more than 80% of all power, around 50 regional and about 800 municipal electricity distribution utilities in Germany; most of the municipal utilities offer also natural gas and sometimes district heat from cogeneration plants) answered that they offered over 200 demand-side management (DSM) programmes to their customers (VDEW 1994).
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