Lead Groups in EU Foreign Policy: The Cases of Iran and Ukraine

Riccardo Alcaro,Marco Siddi

doi:10.1163/21967415-08020016

Abstract

Abstract Since the creation of the EU, there have been instances in which a restricted number of member states has handled an issue of international security on behalf of the Union. This article argues that, while controversial, these ‘lead groups’ have been a valuable practice. They have been effective in generating intra-EU consensus on specific issues and spurring the EU into action, thereby enabling a European response in the context of conflict management and complex international negotiations. Lead groups are sub-optimal arrangements compensating for the in-built institutional shortcomings of unanimity-based decision-making in EU foreign policy. As such, they do not bring integration further. They have nonetheless shown significant potential in giving initiative and content to EU foreign policy. This is shown through the analysis of two case studies, the Anglo-Franco-German trio involved in Iran’s nuclear issue and the Franco-German duo brokering a truce between Russia and Ukraine.

Highlights

Differentiation, conceived of as ‘any modality of integration or cooperation that allows states and sub-state entities to work together in non-homogeneous, flexible ways etc.’,1 is an essential aspect of European Union (EU) policymaking.Foreign policy stands out because differentiation in this domain has unfolded mostly along an informal pattern
They do not bring integration further. They have shown significant potential in giving initiative and content to EU foreign policy. This is shown through the analysis of two case studies, the Anglo-Franco-German trio involved in Iran’s nuclear issue and the Franco-German duo brokering a truce between Russia and Ukraine
Even as the United States (US) became the central driver of negotiations under President Barack Obama (2009–17), the Europeans contributed to the process through the adoption of sanctions and the coordinating role of the hr, who acted as the chief interlocutor of the Iranians on behalf of the E3+3 up to and during the negotiations over the nuclear deal

Summary

Introduction

Differentiation, conceived of as ‘any modality of integration or cooperation that allows states (members and non-members) and sub-state entities to work together in non-homogeneous, flexible ways etc.’,1 is an essential aspect of European Union (EU) policymaking.Foreign policy stands out because differentiation in this domain has unfolded mostly along an informal pattern. The E3/EU group on Iran’s nuclear issue – including France, Germany, the United Kingdom (UK) and the High Representative (hr) for cfsp, a position the Lisbon Treaty merged with the Vice-President of the European Commission (hrvp) – and the Franco-German duo in the Normandy format on the Ukraine crisis are two prominent cases in point.

Results

Conclusion