Late Quaternary human-environment relationship in the Ganga Plain, India

Abstract

Here, we present the first-ever attempt to combine palaeoenvironmental records (n = 17) from dated stratigraphic sequences with Geographic Information System (GIS) spatial modelling of archaeological sites (3 phases; n = 306 sites) in the Ganga Plain. The spatial modelling assesses the distribution of archaeological sites and phases on maps showing changing elevation, geology, geomorphology, biome, and rainfall variability within the Ganga Plain, aiming to evaluate the human-environment relationship during the Late Quaternary Period.The compilation of oxygen and hydrogen isotopic composition (δ18O and δD values) and pollen-based environment reconstructions for the last ∼100 ka indicates high rainfall conditions during ∼100–75 ka, ∼10–5 ka, and ∼3.6–1.3 ka. Fluctuating rainfall conditions were observed during ∼75–25 ka and ∼18–15 ka, while the period from ∼25 to 18 ka was the weakest monsoon phase, marking the Last Glacial Maximum. Arid conditions were also observed during ∼15–10 ka and ∼5–3.6 ka. The archaeological review suggests the presence of the Acheulian culture, diverse Mesolithic cultures, and the Neolithic phase marked by advanced agriculture and pottery production in the Ganga Plain. The past environmental analyses show changes in settlement areas correlating with rainfall variations. Frequent climate changes and increasing population density during the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary probably forced prehistoric humans to adopt agricultural practices. The distribution of archaeological sites representing different cultural phases on the modern spatial maps of landscape variability (e.g., elevation, rainfall, geomorphology, and geology) reflects an intricate relationship between prehistoric human settlements, monsoonal rainfall, and climate-driven landform processes.Our assessment suggests that the integration of archaeological sites, geological mapping, vegetation analysis, and palaeoclimate records has the potential to provide valuable insights into ancient human-environment interactions. Therefore, we recommend continued interdisciplinary research in these fields to further enhance our knowledge of prehistoric societies and their responses to changing landscapes and climates in the Ganga Plain.