L2 writing and its external correlates

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Abstract The present meta-analysis examined the overall average correlation between second/foreign language (L2) writing performance and each of 11 key predictor variables frequently investigated in the research domain, and compared the relative importance of those variables. A series of moderator analyses were also carried out to examine the effects of age, L2 proficiency, first language (L1) and L2 distance, learning context, and measurement characteristics for six high-evidence correlates (L2 grammar, L2 vocabulary, L2 reading, L2 speaking, L1 writing, and motivational constructs). By doing so, we examined various L2 proficiency models, writing models, and hypotheses, particularly the core-periphery model proposed by Hulstijn (2015). To this end, a total of 103 retrieved studies contributed 377 effect sizes based on 112,475 independent participants. The results showed that L2 reading and speaking achievement had strong average correlations with L2 writing performance, whereas L1 writing performance had a medium correlation with it. L2 linguistic knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, transcription, decoding) had more medium to strong effects on L2 writing performance than language-general cognitive skills and motivational constructs, which had only weak effects. The effects of metacognitive knowledge were trivial and insignificant. L2 proficiency, age, and certain measurement characteristics were found to be significant moderators for certain components.