Abstract
This article aims to review all currently known interactions between animal and human coronaviruses and their cellular receptors. Over the past 20 years, three novel coronaviruses have emerged that have caused severe disease in humans, including SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome virus 2); therefore, a deeper understanding of coronavirus host–cell interactions is essential. Receptor-binding is the first stage in coronavirus entry prior to replication and can be altered by minor changes within the spike protein—the coronavirus surface glycoprotein responsible for the recognition of cell-surface receptors. The recognition of receptors by coronaviruses is also a major determinant in infection, tropism, and pathogenesis and acts as a key target for host-immune surveillance and other potential intervention strategies. We aim to highlight the need for a continued in-depth understanding of this subject area following on from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, with the possibility for more zoonotic transmission events. We also acknowledge the need for more targeted research towards glycan–coronavirus interactions as zoonotic spillover events from animals to humans, following an alteration in glycan-binding capability, have been well-documented for other viruses such as Influenza A.
Highlights
Coronaviruses are a large family of enveloped, positive sense, single stranded RNA viruses [1], which as classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) are part of the Nidovirales order, sub-order Coronavirinae, family Coronaviridae
Another example is the G142D S1-N-terminal domain (NTD) mutation observed in SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, which is linked with increased transmissibility and immune evasion [80,81]
The results suggest that TMPRSS2 and HAT cleave the 229E-S, likely at the same sites that are recognised by trypsin [301]
Summary
Coronaviruses are a large family of enveloped, positive sense, single stranded RNA viruses [1], which as classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) are part of the Nidovirales order, sub-order Coronavirinae, family Coronaviridae. Whilst viruses utilise primary receptors for entry, additional molecules can be used for attachment to the cell surface membrane or alternative methods of entry at a later stage This is elegantly demonstrated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which binds the cellular receptor CD4 [25,26], and subsequently either the chemokine co-receptor. Whilst some aspects of coronavirus receptor interactions have previously been reviewed (Guruprasad et al [31], Reguera et al [32], Holmes et al [33] and others); this review aims to give a more comprehensive and updated overview of all known animal and human coronavirus receptor and cellular interactions as a whole It covers receptor recognition and entry mechanisms, the spike and haemagglutinin-esterase glycoproteins, receptor-binding domains and primary receptors and attachment factors
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