Karst: the foundation for concepts in hydrogeology

Abstract

Few citizens of the world would have trouble understanding the terms springs, ground water, geology, or hydrology. Newer water terms that are more familiar include bottled water, spring water, sparkling water, or mineral water, all of which now come in vessels of different shapes, sizes, colors and labels. It is interesting to note that a glass of cold, refreshing tap water will cost about 1 cent, whereas the same glass of sparkling cold bottled water will cost 50 or more times that price, and is even more than a gallon of gasoline. On the other hand, the term karst is not as well known, and it is the most pertinent objective of this congress to bring about a better knowledge and understanding of karst. “The past is a key to the future.” A wise statement; however, serving as an editor of the international journal of Environmental Geology gives frequent reminders that some younger and perhaps a few older scientists, particularly those in the consulting area, are not well aware of the stepping stones inherited from the past. This is evidenced by the use of phrases such as, “development of a new concept, method, or solution” which was published many years before. A suggestion: “do the homework” and adequately reference research while preparing project proposals, and acknowledge primary contributors on the subject. Sometimes a list of carefully selected references is more important to a fellow scientist than the paper itself. Historically, the use of karst spring waters dates back to the earliest civilizations. Cuneiform tablets provided the first written records of hydrological research that describes an expedition in 852 bc by the Assyrian King Salmanassar III to the headwaters of the Tigris. The source of the Tigris is a karst spring. Inscriptions near the entrance to the cave from which the spring discharges state that it is the source of water to the Tigris and immortalizes Salmanassar III. It is the first known reference to the formation of stalagmites. Other examples from the Bible include the principal sources of water for the ancient city of Palmyra in Syria where a spring called Efca discharges water that is warm (33°C), sulphurus, and radioactive. It was believed by some to have curative powers. In Biblical times, karst-caves or systems provided water in Sinai and at Shobek, Kirhareshet, Lachish, Jerusalem, Hazor, and Gezer. In China, a book, Annotation on Water Scripture, by Li Daoyuan, published during the second century ad describes hot springs, and the water from Lisban Spring, in China, is recorded in 1134 bc as being used for medical purposes by many monarchies. In Europe, one of the most famous springs is Bath in England. It is the site of an early spa during Roman times, where soldiers enthusiastically visited these hot springs for rest and relaxation. This source became contaminated and represents one of the earliest recorded problems with pollution of spring waters. Hot springs were famous throughout the Roman Empire, and many remain today as health resorts. In 2004, Dorothy Crouch, in her books, Water Management in Ancient Greek Cities (1993) and Geology and Settlement Greco-Roman Pattern presents two of the most comprehensive texts on interrelationships between water supplies and development of civilization in karst. The books illustrate that many of the basic hydrogeologic concepts of karst were developed by early philosophers of ancient Greece and were used in the sighting, planning, and construction of Syracuse Corinth, Delphi, Miletus, Ephesus, plus five other sites that were studied and compared representing 1400 years of urbanization by the Greeks and Romans.