Abstract
The research career of Justin O. Schmidt (1947–2023) is reviewed and assessed. The pioneering nature of his research lay in treating the defensive means and tactics of aculeate hymenoptera and some arachnids as features of their overall anti-predator strategies. He devised methods for comparing the effects of hymenopteran venoms and stings that challenged the assumed correlation between venom potency and the pain that it induces.
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