Abstract
Marine soundscapes consist of cumulative contributions by diverse sources of sound grouped into: physical (e.g., wind), biological (e.g., fish), and anthropogenic (e.g., shipping)—each with unique spatial, temporal, and frequency characteristics. In terms of anthropophony, shipping has been found to be the greatest (ubiquitous and continuous) contributor of low-frequency underwater noise in several northern hemisphere soundscapes. Our aim was to develop a model for ship noise in Australian waters, which could be used by industry and government to manage marine zones, their usage, stressors, and potential impacts. We also modelled wind noise under water to provide context to the contribution of ship noise. The models were validated with underwater recordings from 25 sites. As expected, there was good congruence when shipping or wind were the dominant sources. However, there was less agreement when other anthropogenic or biological sources were present (i.e., primarily marine seismic surveying and whales). Off Australia, pristine marine soundscapes (based on the dominance of natural, biological and physical sound) remain, in particular, near offshore reefs and islands. Strong wind noise dominates along the southern Australian coast. Underwater shipping noise dominates only in certain areas, along the eastern seaboard and on the northwest shelf, close to shipping lanes.
Highlights
The aim of our project was to develop a model for underwater ship noise in the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that could be used by industry and government to manage marine zones, their usage, stressors, and potential impacts
To put ship noise into context, we modelled natural noise from wind under water
The models are based on numerous assumptions and involve a lot of averaging in space and time, leading to uncertainty
Summary
The oceans abound with natural physical sounds (from wind, rain, polar ice, and seismic activity), biological sounds (from crustaceans, fishes, and marine mammals), and anthropogenic sounds (from transport, construction, offshore exploration, and mining). In 1996, the European Commission identified air-borne noise as one of the main terrestrial environmental issues in Europe, having been neglected compared to chemical pollution [9]. A little later, the issue of underwater ocean noise received similar attention, being declared a pollutant, and with underwater sound monitoring and mapping being suggested [11]. Underwater noise footprints of individual anthropogenic operations are commonly mapped for environmental impact assessments (e.g., [12,13,14]).
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