Abstract
The gut microbiota is a quickly developing bacterial ecosystem with biodiversity. It is an adaptive immunity that varies with food intake, environmental conditions, and human habits, among other factors. Various external stimuli, such as drugs, can influence the gut microbial environment and lead to gut dysbiosis. Recently, gut dysbiosis has been identified as an important factor that leads to several diseases either by the released metabolites or by the gut neuronal connection. In brain disorders, gut dysbiosis is involved in neuropsychiatric manifestations, including autism spectrum disorder, anxiety, and depression by interfering with neurotransmitter homeostasis, and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease by releasing abnormal metabolites from the gut. Gut dysbiosis has been documented in gut disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. Immune cells in the gut are modulated by external factors such as stress, diet, and drugs to produce inflammatory cytokines, including interleukins (IL-4, IL-6, IL-17, IL-23, etc.). Inflammatory cytokines lead to a cascade of events, which lead to various ailments in the bowel. Beneficial bacteria in the form of probiotics ameliorate the condition and have healthful effects in disease conditions. This warrants further research to identify newer therapeutic strategies for diseases that cannot be cured or are difficult to treat.
Highlights
BackgroundThe human body is inhabited by bacteria, archaea, viruses, and eukaryotic microbes
The gut microbiome plays a role in metabolic functions, protection against pathogens, and immune functions; it contributes to normal physiology [2,13,14]
Any disequilibrium between the gut microbiome and its harmonical relations with normal physiology leads to gut dysbiosis
Summary
The human body is inhabited by bacteria, archaea, viruses, and eukaryotic microbes. The organization of microorganisms harboring the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (GIT) is collectively called the “gut microbiome.” The gut microbiome of an individual is specific to that individual, often known as “the microbial signature” [1]. Gut dysbiosis causes altered neurotransmitter release, and some can act as false neurotransmitters in the brain, leading to behavioral changes, mood swings, sleep deprivation, depression, and increased anxiety, as seen in Alzheimer’s disease [37]. Increased glutamate excitatory neurotransmitters released from the dysbiosis gut may enter the circulation and stimulate nociceptive pain receptors in the CNS and trigeminovascular system that predisposes to migraine attacks [52,53] This has been demonstrated in several studies. Behavioral disorders alter cell signaling, which causes oxidative stress and hypoxia, modifying the microbiological environment of the gut [66] Psychological symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, are common in patients with IBD but they influence the course of the disease [67]. Further studies are needed to assess the role of FMT in the management of IBS
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