Abstract
Background: Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric syndrome of increased ammonia-mediated brain dysfunction caused by impaired hepatic detoxification or when the blood bypasses the liver. Ammonia-activated signal transduction pathways of hyperactivated NMDA receptors (NMDAR) are shown to trigger a cascade of pathological reactions in the brain, leading to oxidative stress. NMDARs outside the brain are widely distributed in peripheral tissues, including the liver, heart, pancreas, and erythrocytes. To determine the contribution of these receptors to ammonia-induced oxidative stress in peripheral tissues, it is relevant to investigate if there are any ammonia-related changes in antioxidant enzymes and free radical formation and whether blockade of NMDARs prevents these changes. Methods: Hyperammonemia was induced in rats by ammonium acetate injection. Oxidative stress was measured as changes in antioxidant enzyme activities and O2•− and H2O2 production by mitochondria isolated from the tissues and cells mentioned above. The effects of the NMDAR antagonist MK-801 on oxidative stress markers and on tissue ammonia levels were evaluated. Results: Increased ammonia levels in erythrocytes and mitochondria isolated from the liver, pancreas, and heart of hyperammonemic rats are shown to cause tissue-specific oxidative stress, which is prevented completely (or partially in erythrocyte) by MK-801. Conclusions: These results support the view that the pathogenesis of HE is multifactorial and that ammonia-induced multiorgan oxidative stress-mediated by activation of NMDAR is an integral part of the disease and, therefore, the toxic effects of ammonia in HE may be more global than initially expected.
Highlights
Introduction iationsHepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric disorder that develops in patients with severe liver dysfunction
We examined whether MK-801 could affect ammonia levels in NMDA receptors (NMDAR)-equipped circulating erythrocytes [63,64] in rats with hyperammonemia
Since the reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes found in the liver mitochondria of hyperammonemic animals may trigger oxidative stress development, we evaluated whether acute ammonia intoxication increases the formation of other oxidative stress components—superoxide radical (O2 − )
Summary
Introduction iationsHepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric disorder that develops in patients with severe liver dysfunction. Elevated blood ammonia (hyperammonemia (HA)) caused by a combination of impaired detoxification by the liver due to hepatocytes damage and portosystemic shunting, which allows ammonia to enter the brain unhindered, is considered the main. Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric syndrome of increased ammonia-mediated brain dysfunction caused by impaired hepatic detoxification or when the blood bypasses the liver. Ammonia-activated signal transduction pathways of hyperactivated NMDA receptors (NMDAR) are shown to trigger a cascade of pathological reactions in the brain, leading to oxidative stress. To determine the contribution of these receptors to ammonia-induced oxidative stress in peripheral tissues, it is relevant to investigate if there are any ammonia-related changes in antioxidant enzymes and free radical formation and whether blockade of NMDARs prevents these changes. Oxidative stress was measured as changes in antioxidant enzyme activities and
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