Abstract
Understanding of how the human organism functions has preoccupied researchers in medicine for a very long time. While most of the mechanisms are well understood and detailed thoroughly, medicine has yet much to discover. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), and Zinc (Zn) are elements on which organisms, ranging from simple bacteria all the way to complex ones such as mammals, rely on these divalent ions. Compounded by the continuously evolving biotechnologies, these ions are still relevant today. This review article aims at recapping the mechanisms involved in Fe, Cu, and Zn homeostasis. By applying the knowledge and expanding on future research areas, this article aims to shine new light of existing illness. Thanks to the expanding field of nanotechnology, genetic disorders such as hemochromatosis and thalassemia can be managed today. Nanoparticles (NPs) improve delivery of ions and confer targeting capabilities, with the potential for use in treatment and diagnosis. Iron deficiency, cancer, and sepsis are persisting major issues. While targeted delivery using Fe NPs can be used as food fortifiers, chemotherapeutic agents against cancer cells and microbes have been developed using both Fe and Cu NPs. A fast and accurate means of diagnosis is a major impacting factor on outcome of patients, especially when critically ill. Good quality imaging and bed side diagnostic tools are possible using NPs, which may positively impact outcome.
Highlights
Divalent metal ions are part of the physiology of complex cellular organisms such as humans but are essential for the simpler organisms such as bacteria and fungi
HFE links to TfR2 and forms a complex, which includes HJV, bone morphogenic protein (BMP), and BMP receptor (BMPR); together, they signal the production of hepcidin in an attempt to curb the increasing levels of iron
A thorough understanding of ion physiology, nanomaterials, and their interactions allowed for the creation of polymers that act as nanoparticle receptors, to determine the titres of specific nanosized molecules, including proteins
Summary
Divalent metal ions are part of the physiology of complex cellular organisms such as humans but are essential for the simpler organisms such as bacteria and fungi. The most abundant ion in humans is iron, a divalent element essential for many processes. Byproducts of reduction and oxidation produce cell damage by denaturing proteins such as enzymes and DNA and phospholipid structures such as cell membranes These processes are a double-edged sword because, on one hand, they damage the self-organism, and on the other, these ions can act as defense mechanisms when aimed against foreign organisms. Some proteins act as enzymes while others play a structural role; for example, the hemoglobin and DNA In simpler organisms such as bacteria, divalent ions are involved in enzyme production, transcription, and signal transduction, which confer them the ability to be virulent and to replicate [3]. This review article offers an overview of the mechanisms involved in ion homeostasis and ways to alter these pathways, using nanoparticles, to diagnose and treat various disorders
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