Abstract
The distinction between range spread and frequency spread as seen on mid‐latitude ionograms is discussed. A classification of these two types of spread F is proposed in terms of different arrangements of the duplicate traces which provide the basic trace structures of mid‐latitude spread F ionograms. Experimental results are presented to support the idea that frequency spread results from multiple ray paths (associated with a shallow ripple structure in the isoionic contours) close to the direction of the zenith position, so that each ray path has a range approximately equal to that of its neighbor. Furthermore, a horizontal gradient of maximum electron density is an additional requirement to create frequency spread. Atmospheric conditions (involving ionospheric F2 region heights and upper atmosphere neutral particle densities) which seem to favor the generation of frequency spread are discussed.
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