(Invited) The Sustainability of Lithium-Ion Batteries - from Mine to Cells

Abstract

Are batteries in electric vehicles a panacea for some of our climate woes? On the surface EVs seem to be clean. Zero emissions from the tailpipe. They can (theoretically) run on energy derived from renewable sources. It is estimated there will be 10 to 20 times more electric vehicles on the road by 2030. Perhaps more, as many governments are mandating their use. This might seem to be a very positive development. But the answer to the question above is “Emphatically NO!” Here’s why: batteries are a very dirty business. Battery companies strive to make higher-energy batteries (more Watt-hours) at a lower and lower cost ($/Wh). Materials development has proceeded at a great pace for the past several years. More energetic materials are developed and produced at a lower cost. Little thought (certainly only a little action) is given to the sustainability of the battery industry. With 1000% growth expected over the next 10 years, the battery industry could get very dirty. Most consideration goes to the middle of the battery supply chain: precursors and battery materials. The back-end of the battery supply chain, mining, smelting, and making precursors are decidedly dirty and use a lot of fossil fuel for mining and transport, process water and chemicals, and have significant waste streams. The goal must be to create a long-term sustainable supply of critical raw materials for battery materials production, thus creating an efficient battery electric vehicle supply chain. This paper looks at the processes and improvements to the mining and development of battery raw materials such as cobalt, Class 1 nickel, manganese, copper, aluminum, phosphorous, and fluorine. There is a detailed examination of pre-treatment technology for nickel and cobalt to prepare the materials to the requirement of nickel-rich cathodes. These developments discussed are a major step towards sustainable battery material production, which car manufacturers and customers are demanding. Figure 1