Abstract
Transparent conducting oxide (TCO) materials are implemented into a wide variety of commercial devices because they possess a unique combination of high optical transparency and high electrical conductivity. Created during the processing of the TCOs, defects within the atomic-scale structure are responsible for their desirable optical and electrical properties. Therefore, studying the defect structure is essential to a better understanding of the behavior of transparent conductors. X-ray and neutron scattering techniques are powerful tools to investigate the atomic lattice structural defects in these materials. This review paper presents some of the current developments in the study of structural defects in n-type TCOs using x-ray diffraction (XRD), neutron diffraction, extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS), pair distribution functions (PDFs), and x-ray fluorescence (XRF).
Highlights
In most materials, high transparency in the visible region and high electrical conductivity are mutually exclusive properties
Thin films of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) materials are approximately 90% transparent in the visible region and exhibit electrical conductivity of more than 1000 S/cm [1]. This unique combination of these two properties is very attractive for a wide variety of commercial applications, where TCO materials act as electrodes in optoelectronics devices, such as flat-panel displays and smart windows [2]
Represents a neutral oxygen atom on an oxygen site; represents a vacancy on an oxygen site having an effective positive charge of +2; and e′ represents an electron with one negative charge
Summary
High transparency in the visible region and high electrical conductivity are mutually exclusive properties. Thin films of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) materials are approximately 90% transparent in the visible region and exhibit electrical conductivity of more than 1000 S/cm [1] This unique combination of these two properties is very attractive for a wide variety of commercial applications, where TCO materials act as electrodes in optoelectronics devices, such as flat-panel displays and smart windows [2]. The electrical conductivity of a TCO results from the presence of atomic-scale defects, which for n-type semiconductors, bring in donors that increase the electron population. The specific types of atomic-scale defects for a given TCO depend on the specific oxide and its synthesis They may include oxygen vacancies, cation vacancies, oxygen interstitials, cation interstitials, impurity dopants, cation and anion anti-sites, and defect complexes, which consist of a combination of two or more point defects. This review paper presents some of the current developments in the study of defects in indium-based, tin-based, and zinc-based n-type TCOs using x-ray and neutron scattering techniques
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