Abstract
The Himalayan, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush (HKH-TMHA) are the three main mountain ranges in the high-mountain Asia region, covering the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). In this study, we identified glacial lakes in the HKH-TMHA region based on multitemporal Landsat images taken from 1990 to 2020. We analyzed the spatial distribution and evolution of glacial lakes in the HKH-TMHA region from the perspective of their elevation, size, and terrain aspect; then, we described their temporal changes. The results showed that approximately 84.56% of the glacial lakes (84.1% of the total lake area) were located at elevations between 4000 m and 5500 m, and glacial lakes with areas ranging from 0.01–0.5 km2 accounted for approximately 95.21% of the number and 63.01% of the total area of glacial lakes. The number (38.64%) and area (58.83%) of south-facing glacial lakes were largest in HKH-TMHA and expanded significantly over time. There were 5835 (664.84 ± 89.72 km2) glacial lakes in 1990; from 1990 to 2020, the number of glacial lakes in the HKH-TMHA region increased by 5974 (408.93 km2) in total; and the annual average increase in the area of glacial lakes reached 13.63 km2 (11.15%). In 2020, the total number of glacial lake reached to 9673 (899.66 ± 120.63 km2). In addition, most glacial lakes were located in the Eastern Himalayan, China, and the Indus Basin. Based on the precipitation and temperature analyses performed in our study area, we found inconsistent climate characteristics and changes in the three mountain ranges. In general, the daily precipitation (temperature) increased by 1.0766 mm (1.0311 °C), 0.8544 mm (0.8346 °C), and 0.8245 mm (−0.1042 °C) on the yearly, summer, and winter scales, respectively. Glacial melting and climate change are common contributors to glacial lake expansion. The investigation of glacial lakes in this region can provide basic supporting data for research on glacial lake-related disasters, land cover, and climate change in the high-mountain Asia region.
Highlights
Glacial lakes are one of the most active elements of the cryosphere system, are extremely sensitive to climate change, and can be used as indirect indicators of regional glacier changes, regional water cycles, and climate change [1,2]
Glacial mass losses and retreat provide both the main water source and the space required for the expansion of glacial lakes, leading to environmental changes that can alter the water resources and disaster risks associated with glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs); these factors have led to the repeated formation of inventories and assessments of glacial lakes in this region [6–8]
Long-term mapping and dynamic monitoring research on glacial lakes in the Himalayan, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush (HKH-TMHA) region is of great significance for understanding glacier-related hazards and water resources
Summary
Glacial lakes are one of the most active elements of the cryosphere system, are extremely sensitive to climate change, and can be used as indirect indicators of regional glacier changes, regional water cycles, and climate change [1,2]. Glaciers in high-mountain Asia regions have retreated substantially on a large scale beyond the context of global warming [3–6], and the negative mass balances of glaciers have increased [7–9]. Changes in glaciers such as Hamtah (−1.2 m/y w.e., 2001–2006) [10,11], AX010 (−0.63 m/y w.e., 1996–1999) [10,11] and Multiple (−0.30 m/y w.e., 1962–2005) [12]. Glacial mass losses and retreat provide both the main water source and the space required for the expansion of glacial lakes, leading to environmental changes that can alter the water resources and disaster risks associated with GLOFs; these factors have led to the repeated formation of inventories and assessments of glacial lakes in this region [6–8]. The derived results can be used to assess the risk levels of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and for disaster prevention and management
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