Introduction

Abstract

The chemist is “both a craftsman and a philosopher” (Knight 1992, 13). Chemistry traces its origins to such ancient crafts as metalworking, dyeing, tanning, and ceramics, and also to the ancient philosophers’ speculations about the nature of matter. As a unique combination of the theoretical and the practical, the practice of chemistry raises interesting ethical questions. Chemistry has transformed the modern world with amazing new materials, powerful drugs, agricultural products that have increased farm productivity, new and better explosives that can be used for both construction and destruction, synthetic textile fibers, brilliantly colored dyes, and countless others. With these advances have come unfortunate effects like environmental pollution. As a result, moral questions concerning the relationship between chemistry and society have become increasingly urgent (Hoffmann 1997). The remarkable scientific successes during World War II, such as the Manhattan Project and the development of radar, changed the practice of science. Science, including chemistry, was no longer a leisurely activity conducted primarily by university faculty with the assistance of a few graduate students and minimal financial support. Government funding, epitomized by the founding of the National Science Foundation, along with increased private foundation and industry support stimulated the growth of research programs in universities, national laboratories, and private research institutions. Scientific research has become high profile and high pressure; the rewards for success can be significant in both prestige and money. Although scientists have always been competitive, the culture of the community has changed in recent years, straining the bonds of collegiality and bringing questions of professional ethics to the forefront. Over the past few decades, the number of working scientists has increased significantly. Research groups have become larger and research has become more collaborative, more interdisciplinary, and more international. The Internet makes communication and collaborations between research groups at different universities or in different countries easy. As a result, researchers are able to address increasingly complex problems in large interdisciplinary teams. The single-author article is disappearing; instead, author lists of five to ten are quite common. Although these changes have led to important scientific advances, they have also made it harder to ensure research integrity.