Introduction to Zhentong (Extrinsic Emptiness)

Abstract

The zhentong (gzhan stong; also phonetisized shentong) philosophy of emptiness is a positivist tradition in the history of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist thought that includes a range of philosophical views and meditative experiences that express the ultimate to be emptiness (śūnyatā; stong pa nyid) devoid of everything other than (gzhan) buddhanature (tathāgatagarbha; de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po), a luminous essence that pervades living beings. The literal meaning of zhentong is to be empty of other, which is commonly translated as “other-emptiness” or “extrinsic emptiness.” In contrast to zhentong, philosophical views that assert emptiness devoid of an intrinsic nature (svabhāva) are rangtong (rang stong), which means to be empty of itself, and is commonly translated as “self-emptiness” or “intrinsic emptiness.” Adherents to zhentong views are called “Zhentongpas,” while adherents to rangtong views are called “Rangtongpas.” Accordingly, Tibetan adherents to zhentong generally divide the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist thought into two sub-schools: (a) General Madhyamaka or Rangtong Madhyamaka, namely the Prāsaṅgika and Svātantrika approaches; and (b) Great Madhyamaka or Zhentong Madhyamaka. Historically, there are zhentong proponents from the Jonang, Nyingma, Kagyü, Sakya, and Kadam orders of Tibetan Buddhism. Canonical Indian Buddhist sources for zhentong include the ten Essence Sūtras, ten Sūtras on Definitive Meaning, Five Treatises of Maitreya, and Nāgārjuna’s Collection of Hymns. Influential sūtras that discuss buddhanature in these collections include the Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda Sūtra, Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra, and Laṇkāvatāra Sūtra. Among the Five Treatises of Maitreya, the Ratnagotravibhāga, or what is popularly known as the Uttaratantra, is most frequently cited. Nāgārjuna’s Collection of Hymns provides a positivist appraisal of the ultimate, juxtaposed to his more well-known Collection on Reasoning. The most important tantras for zhentong are the Bodhisattva Trilogy, which are the definitive Indian commentaries on the Kālacakra Tantra, Hevajra Tantra, and the Cakrasamvara Tantra. Among these, the Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakra is paramount. The most prominent proponent of zhentong in Tibet was the Jonang scholar Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361) who formalized the usage of the terms rangtong and zhentong to distinguish two modes of emptiness: emptiness devoid of an intrinsic nature, and what is not empty of buddhanature. During the 15th century, the most influential zhentong thinker was the Sakya scholar Shākya Chokden (1428–1507), whose zhentong view differed from Dölpopa’s, particularly on his interpretation of the constancy of nondual awareness. Several hierarchs in the Kagyü order of Tibetan Buddhism articulated zhentong views, including the Third Karmapa Rangjung Dorjé (1284–1339), Second Zharmapa Kachö Wangpo (1350–1405), Seventh Karmapa Chödrak Gyatso (1454–1506), and the Eighth Karmapa Mikyo Dorjé (1507–1554). The most prolific Jonang author in the history of zhentong after Dölpopa was Tāranātha (1575–1635) who was inspired by a vision to preserve Dölpopa’s insights. Following his death, however, the government of central Tibet headed by the Fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobzang Gyatso (1617–1682) confiscated Tāranātha’s monastery, converted Jonang studies to a Geluk curricula, and banned books on zhentong. The Jonang fled to eastern Tibet where they revitalized their tradition of zhentong and the Kālacakra in regions of Amdo. The Nyingma polymath Rikzin Tsewang Norbu (1698–1755) from Katok Monastery in Kham inspired zhentong thinking in several important figures including his compeer Situ Paṇchen Chökyi Jungné (1699–1774), and the later Nyingma scholar Katok Getsé Paṇḍita Tsewang Chökdrup (1761–1829) who wrote on Zhentong Madhyamaka in the context of explaining Dzokchen. As part of their Rimé project, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Tayé (1813–1899) and Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo (1820–1892) centrally positioned zhentong within their brand of Buddhist ecumenicalism. Among Jonang scholars in the modern era, Khenpo Lodrö Drakpa (1920–1975) from Dzamtang was the most important author on zhentong whose work sought to realign zhentong philosophical thinking with Dölpopa and Tāranātha.