Abstract
One underappreciated paradox of a liberal presidency is that its shortcomings often inspire mass, creative action by critics on its left. During the mid-1930s, radicals led an industrial strike wave that compelled a reluctant Franklin D. Roosevelt to support the National Labor Relations Act. Three decades later, mass acts of nonviolent civil disobedience persuaded John Kennedy to propose a civil rights law he had feared, correctly, would drive white Southerners toward the Republican Party. In each case, movements from below put sustained pressure on powerful men to back up their talk with action.
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