Into the depths: Unveiling ELAIS-N1 with LOFAR’s deepest sub-arcsecond wide-field images

Abstract

We present the deepest wide-field 115–166 MHz image at sub-arcsecond resolution spanning an area of 2.5° × 2.5° centred at the ELAIS-N1 deep field. To achieve this, we improved the direction-independent (DI) and direction-dependent (DD) calibrations for the International LOw Frequency ARray (LOFAR) Telescope. This enhancement enabled us to efficiently process 32 h of data from four different 8-h observations using the high-band antennas (HBAs) of all 52 stations, covering baselines up to approximately 2000 km across Europe. The DI calibration was improved by using an accurate sky model and refining the series of calibration steps on the in-field calibrator, while the DD calibration was improved by adopting a more automated approach for selecting the DD calibrators and inspecting the self-calibration on these sources. For our brightest calibrators, we also added an additional round of self-calibration for the Dutch core and remote stations in order to refine the solutions for shorter baselines. To complement our highest resolution at 0.3″, we also made intermediate resolution wide-field images at 0.6″ and 1.2″. Our resulting wide-field images achieve a central noise level of 14 μJy beam−1 at 0.3″, doubling the depth and uncovering four times more objects than the Lockman Hole deep field image at comparable resolution but with only 8 h of data. Compared to LOFAR imaging without the international stations, we note that due to the increased collecting area and the absence of confusion noise, we reached a point-source sensitivity comparable to a 500-h ELAIS-N1 6″ image with 16 times less observing time. Importantly, we have found that the computing costs for the same amount of data are almost halved (to about 139 000 CPU h per 8 h of data) compared to previous efforts, though they remain high. Our work underscores the value and feasibility of exploiting all Dutch and international LOFAR stations to make deep wide-field images at sub-arcsecond resolution.