Interests and Alignments

Abstract

Both realist and liberal interpretations of state behaviour and the possibility of international cooperation are founded upon the notion of interest. In realist conceptions of national interest the survival of the state and its territorial integrity are paramount. Arnold Wolfers (1962) made a key distinction between ‘possession’ and ‘milieu’ goals. The pursuit of both, in his view, could serve the national interest, but, as he pointed out, realists have tended to define the national interest in terms of possession goals, typically involving the defence of national territory and economic assets. Milieu goals, as the name suggests, involve the general improvement of the international context through the non-exclusive provision of universal benefits and public goods. Environmental agreements typically serve milieu goals through the avoidance or reduction of harm. Avoiding dangerous anthropogenic climate change would be a clear example of the achievement of a milieu goal. For realists, possession goals lie at the heart of national interest and must, therefore, take priority over milieu goals, however desirable they may be. The primary possession goal for a state will be maintenance of territorial integrity plus the protection and extension of important economic resources and strategically significant positions. The exact nature of such national interests will vary over time and with respect to the specific situation of particular states, but realists often observe long-term historical continuities that can sometimes allow interests to be portrayed as having an objective character.