Abstract
Waterfowl (Anseriformes) and shorebirds (Charadriiformes) are the most common wild vectors of influenza A viruses. Due to their migratory behavior, some may transmit disease over long distances. Migratory connectivity studies can link breeding and nonbreeding grounds while illustrating potential interactions among populations that may spread diseases. We investigated Dunlin (Calidris alpina), a shorebird with a subspecies (C. a. arcticola) that migrates from nonbreeding areas endemic to avian influenza in eastern Asia to breeding grounds in northern Alaska. Using microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA, we illustrate genetic structure among six subspecies: C. a. arcticola,C. a. pacifica,C. a. hudsonia,C. a. sakhalina,C. a. kistchinski, and C. a. actites. We demonstrate that mitochondrial DNA can help distinguish C. a. arcticola on the Asian nonbreeding grounds with >70% accuracy depending on their relative abundance, indicating that genetics can help determine whether C. a. arcticola occurs where they may be exposed to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) during outbreaks. Our data reveal asymmetric intercontinental gene flow, with some C. a. arcticola short-stopping migration to breed with C. a. pacifica in western Alaska. Because C. a. pacifica migrates along the Pacific Coast of North America, interactions between these subspecies and other taxa provide route for transmission of HPAI into other parts of North America.
Highlights
Birds are primary reservoirs for all known influenza A virus subtypes (Webster et al 1992)
The signature of asymmetric gene flow was present in both data sets, where C. a. arcticola was a source of migrants into both C. a. pacifica and C. a. sakhalina, but comparatively little gene flow occurred in the opposite direction
We focused on determining whether the four subspecies of Dunlin that winter in Asia can be differentiated and if genetic evidence for gene flow among Beringian subspecies exists
Summary
Birds are primary reservoirs for all known influenza A virus subtypes (Webster et al 1992). Infected birds generally harbor low-pathogenic avian influenza (AI). Strains; outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza strains (HPAI) such as the H5N1 and H7N9 subtypes are becoming more common, especially in South-East Asia (Chen et al 2004, 2006; Li et al 2004; Ferguson et al 2005; Gao et al 2013; Uyeki and Cox 2013). Dunlin genetic structure migratory behavior of many virus hosts (Kilpatrick et al 2006). Up to three million birds and thousands of infected individuals cross the Bering Strait from Asia into Alaska each year (Winker and Gibson 2010)
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