Abstract

The California mouse ( Peromyscus californicus ) may be a valuable animal model to study parenting as it is one of the few monogamous and biparental rodent species. By using automated infra-red imaging and video documentation of established pairs spanning two days prior to birth of the litter until d 5 of post natal development (PND), it was possible to follow interactions between parents and between parents and pups. The paired males were attentive to their partners in the form of grooming and sniffing throughout the time period studied. Both these and other activities of the partners, such as eating and drinking, peaked during late light/ mid-dark period. Beginning the day before birth, and most significantly on PND 0, the female made aggressive attempts to exclude the male from nest-attending, acts that were not reciprocated by the male, although he made repeated attempts to mate his partner during that period. By PND 1, males were permitted to return to the nest, where they initiated grooming, licking, and huddling over the litter, although time spent by the male on parental care was still less than that of the female. Male and female pups were of similar size and grew at the same rate. Pups, which are believed to be exothermic for at least the first two weeks post-natally, maintained a body temperature higher than that of their parents until PND 16. Data are consistent with the inference that the male California mouse parent is important in helping retain pup body heat and permit dams increased time to procure food to accommodate her increased energy needs for lactation. These assessments provide indices that may be used to assess the effects of extrinsic factors, such as endocrine disrupting chemicals, on biparental behaviors and offspring development.

Highlights

  • The influence of early maternal care on offspring outcomes is receiving considerable attention

  • California mice, prairie voles, and mandarin voles have been most widely used to study this aspect of reproduction

  • In the case of eating and drinking, these behaviors likely impact the ability of the partners to nourish or provide parental care to their pups

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Summary

Introduction

The influence of early maternal care on offspring outcomes is receiving considerable attention. It is clear from several studies that the quality and quantity of maternal care can lead to dramatic consequences in later life, including morphological changes in the brain and effects on later play, anxiety, fear, and reproductive behaviors [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. These changes are likely a result of epigenetic imprints placed on key genes during the time when maternal care is most critical to the future well-being of the progeny [9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. California mice, prairie voles, and mandarin voles have been most widely used to study this aspect of reproduction

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